Pesticides:Information

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Pesticide Management Explorer



Contents

Adjuvants

‘‘ Adjuvants; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

An adjuvant is a chemical added to a pesticide formulation or tank mix to increase its effectiveness or safety. Most pesticide formulations contain at least a small percentage of adjuvants. Some of the most common adjuvants are surfactants -- "surface active ingredients" that alter the dispersing, spreading, and wetting properties of spray droplets.




Adjuvants, types of

‘‘Adjuvants, types of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Wetting agents -- allow wettable powders to mix with water.

Emulsifiers -- allow petroleum-based pesticides (EC's) to mix with water.

Invert emulsifiers -- allow water-based pesticides to mix with petroleum carrier.

Spreaders -- allow pesticide to form a uniform coating layer over the treated surface.

Stickers -- allow pesticide to stay on the treated surface.

Penetrants -- allow the pesticide to get through the outer surface to the inside of the treated area.

Foaming agents -- reduce drift.

Thickeners -- reduce drift by increasing droplet size.

Safeners -- reduce the toxicity of a pesticide formulation to the pesticide handler or to the treated surface.

Compatibility agents -- aid in combining pesticides effectively.

Buffers -- allow pesticides to be mixed with diluents or other pesticides of different acidity or alkalinity.

Antifoaming agents -- reduce foaming of spray mixtures that require vigorous agitation.




Allergic effects statement

‘‘Allergic effects statement; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If tests or other data indicate that the pesticide product has the potential to cause allergic effects, such as skin irritation or asthma, the product labeling must state that fact. Sometimes the labeling refers to allergic effects as "sensitization."

Personal protective equipment statements -- Immediately following the statements about acute, delayed, and allergic effects, the labeling usually lists personal protective equipment requirements. These statements tell you the minimum personal protective equipment that you must wear when using the pesticide. Sometimes the statements will require different personal protective equipment for different pesticide handling activities. For example, an apron may be required only during mixing, loading or equipment cleaning. Sometimes the statements will allow reduced personal protective equipment when you use safety systems, such as closed systems or enclosed cabs.




Application

‘‘Application; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Every time you apply pesticides, you have two major responsibilities:

  • protecting yourself, others, and the environment, and
  • making sure that the pesticide is applied correctly.




Application Amount

‘‘Application Amount; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

One of the most important tasks for a pesticide applicator is making sure that the correct amount of pesticide is being applied to the target site. Studies indicate that only one out of four pesticide applications is applied within an acceptable range of the intended rate. Applying either too little or too much pesticide can cause problems.

For each pesticide application, take the time to determine how much you need to apply. Then be sure that you apply the correct amount.

Underdosing is expensive. If you apply too little pesticide, you may not fully control the pest. Sometimes you can repeat the entire application, but that can be very costly in both time and money. In other cases, a repeat application may not be possible because it would result in an overdose.

Overdosing is expensive because of the high cost of pesticides. Do not use any more than the amounts listed in the Directions for Use section of the pesticide labeling. Using more product than the labeling recommends will not do a better job of controlling pests, and it is illegal. Overdosing may cause damage or injuries, leave illegal residues, and cause you to be fined or to be liable for damages.




Application Amount -- Calibration and Loading Needed, No Mixing

‘‘Application Amount -- Calibration and Loading Needed, No Mixing; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Ready-to-use formulations sometimes must be loaded into equipment that does require calibration. These include most granular and dust formulations, some liquid formulations (especially solutions), and some fumigant formulations. The pesticide is loaded directly into application equipment without any further dilution. The equipment must be calibrated so that the correct amount of pesticide will be released per unit area.




Application Amount -- Calibration, Mixing, and Loading Needed

‘‘Application Amount -- Calibration, Mixing, and Loading Needed; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Many concentrated pesticides are applied with equipment that must be calibrated. For many certified applicators, this is the option most commonly encountered. The concentrate must be diluted correctly and the equipment must be calibrated correctly. Both steps are crucial to applying the correct amount of pesticide to a target site. If there is an error either in dilution or in calibration, the wrong amount of pesticide will be applied.




Application Amount -- Deciding How Much To Apply

‘‘Application Amount -- Deciding How Much To Apply; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Study the Directions for Use section of the pesticide labeling to find out how much pesticide you should apply. If the labeling lists a range of possible amounts, use the least amount that will achieve good control. Sometimes consultants, industry organizations, pest or pesticide specialists, Cooperative Extension agents, university specialists, or pesticide dealers will recommend appropriate amounts.

The amount of pesticide to use is expressed in various ways. Application rates may be expressed in terms of how much pesticide formulation should be applied. The instructions may tell you how much pesticide formulation should be applied to each unit of area or volume in the target site -- 5 gallons of formulation per acre, or 1 pound of formulation per 100 cubic feet of space, for example. Application rates also may be expressed in terms of how much pesticide formulation should be used per volume of mixture. Labeling might call for 3 tablespoons of product per 5 gallons of water or 1 pint of product per 100 gallons of water.

Sometimes pesticide labeling and other sources express application rates in terms of how much active ingredient should be applied per unit of area or per volume of mixture -- 1 pint active ingredient per 1,000 square feet, or 1/2 pound active ingredient per 500 gallons of water, for example. When the application rate is expressed in this way, you can select different formulations and be able to figure how much to dilute each one. However, figuring the correct dilution for active ingredient recommendations is more complicated.

Occasionally the application rate is expressed in terms of a percentage of the final dilution -- 1/2 percent by volume or 1 percent by weight, for example. Products that are adjuvants often express the application rate in this way. Expressing application rate as a percentage allows the user to calculate the dilution correctly for whatever dilution method is being used for the formulation.




Application Amount -- Loading Needed, No Mixing or Calibration

‘‘Application Amount -- Loading Needed, No Mixing or Calibration; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some ready-to-use pesticides are not sold in the pesticide application equipment. The user must load them into the equipment. If the application equipment to be used is a squeeze-trigger sprayer, shaker-can duster, a vat for dipping animals or plants, a spray-dip vat, a wiper applicator, or some fumigant applicators, no calibration is necessary.




Application Amount -- Mixing and Loading Needed, No Calibration

‘‘Application Amount -- Mixing and Loading Needed, No Calibration; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some concentrated pesticides are diluted and then loaded into equipment that does not require calibration. Many plant and animal dips or spray-dips, tree-canopy sprays, and crack and crevice treatments are applied by equipment that does not need calibration. The applicator is instructed to "cover the plant, animal, or surface thoroughly" or "apply to the point of runoff."




Application Amount -- Mixing, Loading, and Calibration Alternatives

‘‘Application Amount -- Mixing, Loading, and Calibration Alternatives; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Knowing what amount of the pesticide you must apply is only the first step. Next, you must determine how you will deliver the correct amount to the target site. Depending on the type of formulation you choose and the type of application equipment you will use, you may have to do some combination of three basic tasks -- mixing the pesticide, loading it into your equipment, and calibrating the equipment so you will know exactly how much pesticide it is delivering.

  • Mixing -- Unless the pesticide is a ready-to-use formulation or is designed to be applied full strength, you must carefully combine the right amounts of concentrated pesticide formulation and diluent to make the needed application-strength pesticide mixture.
  • Loading -- You may need to transfer the pesticide into the equipment before it can be applied.
  • Calibrating -- For many kinds of applications, you must measure and adjust the amount of pesticide your equipment will apply to the target site.

Each different combination of formulation and equipment type requires you to do a different combination of these tasks to prepare for applying a measured amount of pesticide.




Application Amount -- No Calibration, Mixing, or Loading Needed

‘‘Application Amount -- No Calibration, Mixing, or Loading Needed; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticide formulations are sold at application strength and are already in the equipment needed for application. These include aerosol cans; squeeze-trigger sprayers; delayed-trigger foggers; baits; shaker-can dusters; impregnated collars, bars, strips, and rollers; and wiper bags. The pesticide may be applied to the point of runoff, directed at a specific target, placed so the target contacts it, or released to fill an enclosed space. Most of these pesticides are available for use in only a few specialized pest control situations.




Application Amount, Calculation -- Application Rate

‘‘Application Amount, Calculation -- Application Rate; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The amount of pesticide dispersed, divided by the distance covered, is the application rate. Sometimes no calculations are needed. If, for example, the label lists the application rate as "per acre" or "per 1,000 linear feet" and you measure the output for exactly 1 acre or exactly 1,000 linear feet, no calculations are necessary because the amount of output you measured is the amount required.

However, you may not have time to test your equipment over such a large site. Or, if you are using the actual pesticide in the test, you may not want to risk applying it over a large site without knowing the application rate. Under these conditions, test smaller sites and then calculate the application rate.


Small equipment, small target sites

If your application equipment carries a relatively small load (up to a few gallons of liquid or a few pounds of dry pesticide) or if the target site is relatively small (less than an acre or 1,000 linear feet), you can choose a small test site.

If the use directions are for 100 linear feet, choose a test site of 25 linear feet. If the directions are for 1,000 square feet or for an acre, you might choose a test site of 250 square feet (a 10- by 25-foot rectangle). Measure the amount applied in this smaller site and then multiply to find the rate:

  • The amount applied to 25 linear feet, multiplied by 4, equals the rate per 100 linear feet.
  • The amount applied to 250 square feet, multiplied by 4, equals the rate per 1,000 square feet.
  • The amount applied to 250 square feet, multiplied by 175, equals the rate per acre.


Larger equipment, larger target sites

If your application equipment carries a larger load (more than a few gallons of liquid or a few pounds of dry pesticide) or if the target site is relatively large (greater than an acre or 1,000 linear feet), choose a larger test site. If the test site for these types of equipment or sites is too small, measurements are likely to be inaccurate. Operating a boom or other multi-nozzle or multi-hopper equipment over a site as small as 10 feet by 25 feet, for example, would not allow you to carry or drive the equipment far enough to gauge average speed accurately.

If label directions are for 1,000 square feet or for an acre, use a test site of at least 1,000 square feet (a 20- by 50-foot rectangle). The output you measure during the test will be the actual application rate for the 1,000 square feet. To find the rate per acre, multiply the test output by 43.56, which is the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) divided by 1,000.




Application Amount, Calculation -- Check Calibration Often

‘‘Application Amount, Calculation -- Check Calibration Often; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Once you have calibrated your equipment, do not assume that it will continue to deliver the same rate during all future applications. Clogging, corrosion, and wear may change the delivery rate, or the settings may gradually get out of adjustment. Take time to check the calibration regularly.

Be alert for possible calibration problems each time you use application equipment. During the application, notice whether you are treating the same amount of area per load that you figured. If you find that you are covering more or less area, stop the application and check your figures and your equipment. If you have figured wrong or if your application equipment changes its delivery rate, you will be able to catch the mistake before you have a major problem.




Application Amount, Calculation -- Determining Size of Target Site

‘‘Application Amount, Calculation -- Determining Size of Target Site; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If the target site is a rectangle, circle, or triangle, you can use simple measurements and formulas to determine its size. Irregularly shaped sites often can be reduced to a combination of rectangles, circles, and triangles. Calculate the area of each and add them together to obtain the total area.

To apply fumigants and a few other pesticides to fill the entire inside of a structure or other enclosed space, you must calculate the volume (cubic feet) of the building, greenhouse, truck, railroad car, or ship hold. To apply pesticides to bodies of water (not just the surface), you must calculate the volume of the water in the pond or lake. Sometimes the structures or bodies of water are regular in shape. The calculations for these are fairly simple. If the structure or body of water is irregular, you must calculate parts of the structure separately and add them together to find the total volume.




Application Amount, Calculation -- Diluting Pesticides Correctly

‘‘Application Amount, Calculation -- Diluting Pesticides Correctly; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticides are dilute formulations sold at application strength. These often are labeled "Ready-To-Use" or "RTU." Many of the pesticide formulations are concentrates sold at strengths many times those needed for application. These formulations, which are usually powders or liquids must be diluted before use. Granules and dusts are rarely sold as concentrates; fumigants and ultra-low-volume formulations are concentrates that are applied full strength.

The person who prepares the pesticide mixture for application must figure carefully how much concentrated pesticide to use and how much diluent to add to the concentrate. Unless the pesticide is diluted correctly, the wrong amount of pesticide may be applied.

Water is the most common diluent in pesticide mixtures. Others include other liquids, such as kerosene and oil, and dry ingredients, such as corn husks and powders. Concentrated pesticides are either diluted in a "mix tank" and then loaded into the application equipment or loaded directly into the application equipment and diluted there.

The pesticide labeling or other recommendations will tell you:

  • what to use to dilute the formulation,
  • how much to use to dilute the formulation, and
  • how much of the dilute pesticide to apply per unit of area.

After determining how much you need to dilute the pesticide concentrate, calculate how much pesticide and diluent to combine to achieve the correct amount of dilute pesticide mixture in your application equipment. Depending on the situation, you may need to know:

  • how much your equipment holds when full or how much mixture you will need to complete the job,
  • how much mixture your equipment applies per unit of area,
  • the size of the site you need to treat.

Guides from many sources contain formulas and examples to help you make necessary calculations.

Pesticide labels express the desired dilution for the pesticide mixture in a variety of ways, depending on the type of product and the primary intended uses. If your application situation is not the same as those on which the labeling directions were based, you may have to use some simple arithmetic to convert the quantities to different units of measure.




Application Amount, Calculation -- Measure Accurately

‘‘Application Amount, Calculation -- Measure Accurately; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you measure pesticides or diluents, measure accurately. Inaccurate measurements can lead to underdosing, overdosing, too much pesticide mixture left in the tank, or a tankload of the wrong strength of pesticide mixture.

  • Use graduated utensils. If you are measuring a dry formulation, use a scale to weigh out the exact number of pounds or ounces you need. If you are measuring a liquid formulation or diluent:
  • use measuring spoons or a "tip and pour" to measure teaspoons or tablespoons,
  • use a graduated measuring cup or a "tip and pour" to measure from 1/4 cup to 1 pint,
  • use a graduated jug or pail to measure from 1 pint to 5 gallons,
  • use a flow meter to measure more than 5 gallons at a time.

Carefully measure the amount of pesticide to add. Do not guess how much you are adding and do not add a little extra "just to be sure." Also measure the amount of diluent carefully. Adding the correct amount of concentrate to an approximated amount of diluent can result in a whole tankful of the wrong strength of pesticide mixture. Mix only the amount you have calculated is needed for the application.

Do not assume that the tank is exactly the size of its claimed capacity. A "5 gallon" tank may hold more or less than 5 gallons. A "100 gallon" tank often holds quite a bit more than 100 gallons when totally filled. Measure the tank yourself to be sure. Even the graduated marks on some tanks or hoppers that indicate levels of partial fill are often inaccurate.

You can measure the capacity of your tank and check (or make) gauges indicating partial fill levels in two ways. You can fill the tank by hand using a container of known capacity, such as a measuring cup for small tanks and a 5-gallon pail for larger tanks. Or you can attach a flow meter to a hose and measure the quantity of water as it flows into the tank. For either method, as you fill the tank, you should check or mark measured volumes on a dip stick or sight gauge.

If water or another liquid is being used to dilute the concentrate, rinse the measuring utensils with the diluent and put the rinsate into the mix tank. Repeat this three times to be sure all of the pesticide is removed from the measuring utensil. Measure the amount of a ready-to-use formulation carefully, too. Trying to put pesticide back into the container when you have too much left over after the application is often difficult. Add only the amount you have calculated is needed to complete the application job.

Measuring utensils, such as spoons, cups, jugs, pails and scales, that you use with pesticides should never be used for other purposes. Clean them thoroughly after each use and store them with other pesticide equipment.



Application Amount, Calibration

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Most pesticide applications involve equipment that must be measured and adjusted to release the correct amount of pesticide to the target site. Proper calibration is an essential but often neglected task. To be sure your equipment is releasing the right amount of pesticide, take time to calibrate it carefully and correctly. Recheck it regularly to detect changes caused by wear, corrosion, and aging.

Calibration often requires some simple arithmetic. Usually the equipment manufacturer, the pesticide dealer, your industry organization, or the Cooperative Extension Service will provide some standard formulas to help you. The easiest and most accurate way to do the calculations is with a calculator.

Choose equipment that you know how to use and that is:

  • designed for the type of chemical being applied, and
  • appropriate for the size and type of application job.

Equipment will not deliver the right amount of pesticide to the target site if it is not working correctly. Before you begin to calibrate the equipment, check it carefully to be sure that all components are clean and in good working order. Pay particular attention to the parts that regulate the amount of pesticide being released, such as nozzles and hopper openings. If they become clogged, not enough pesticide will be released. If they become worn, too much pesticide will be released.

Equipment that must be calibrated includes mechanical dusters; granule spreaders; hand, backpack, boom, handgun, high-pressure, airblast, and most other sprayers; and fumigant applicators. The many types of application equipment differ in the details of their operation, but if you understand the basic principles of calibration, you can apply them in any situation.

Study the manufacturer's instructions carefully -- they explain exactly how to adjust the equipment. They often contain suggestions on such things as the appropriate rate of travel, the range of most efficient pump pressures, approximate settings for achieving various delivery rates, and types of nozzles that can be used.




Application Amount, Calibration Methods

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration Methods; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

No matter what calibration method you use, you will be measuring how much pesticide is being applied in a specific area. Calibration usually requires you to operate the equipment over a pre-measured distance.

The rate of application depends partly on the particle or droplet size, texture, and other properties of the pesticide being applied, so you will need to decide what material to use in the test. If the pesticide is a liquid with water as the major diluent, use water alone in the test. If the pesticide is a dust, granule, or fumigant, or a liquid diluted with a liquid other than water, you must use the actual pesticide in the test.

The rate of application sometimes depends also on the pressure and on the nozzle size or hopper opening. The equipment manufacturer's directions are the best guide to these selections.




Application Amount, Calibration -- Equipment with gravity-flow dispersal

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration -- Equipment with gravity-flow dispersal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If the equipment you have chosen uses gravity to maintain the flow of pesticide, calibration may be fairly simple. Some equipment, such as some granule spreaders, needs to be calibrated only to adjust the rate of flow or delivery. This equipment releases pesticide only when the wheels are in motion. If the equipment speed is kept at an even, moderate pace, the amount of pesticide being released per unit area will be uniform.




Application Amount, Calibration -- Equipment with powered dispersal

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration -- Equipment with powered dispersal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If your equipment has a pump or other mechanism to disperse the pesticide, you will need to determine the rate of speed best suited for the type of equipment and for the particular requirements of your application job. Such equipment may be either hand-carried or mounted on a vehicle. In either case, the speed at which the equipment moves through the target site determines the amount of pesticide applied in a given area. Keep the speed as constant as possible during the calibration process and during the actual application. For the most accurate calibration, operate the equipment at the target site or on ground (or other surface) similar to that at the target site. Whether the equipment is hand-carried or mounted on a vehicle, the condition of the ground (surface) that must be crossed is important. A rough and uneven surface will cause the equipment to be operated at a slower speed.

The equipment manufacturer's directions may offer a range of appropriate speeds. Your knowledge of conditions in the target site (including the drift hazard), plus your experience with the equipment, will help you determine an appropriate speed.




Application Amount, Calibration -- Speed

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration -- Speed; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

For some application equipment, the speed at which the equipment moves (or is carried) through the target site is one of the main factors determining application rate. For other equipment, speed is not a factor.




Application Amount, Calibration -- Test Application

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration -- Test Application; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Calibrate your application equipment by:

accurately measuring the amount in the tank or hopper;

operating the equipment over the pre-measured distance while maintaining your chosen speed (if speed affects the delivery rate of the equipment you are using); and

accurately measuring the amount needed to fill the tank or hopper back up to the pre-application level.

If multiple nozzles or hoppers are used, add the output of all the collection jars.




Application Amount, Calibration -- Uniform Release

‘‘Application Amount, Calibration -- Uniform Release; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If your application equipment has more than one nozzle (or more than one cluster of nozzles) or hopper, part of the calibration process is to measure the output from each to be sure that they are releasing a uniform amount of pesticide. First, check for clogging or obstructions, leaks, or worn nozzles. Then, measure the pesticide output for each nozzle (or cluster of nozzles) or hopper for a specific period of time. The output must be within 10 percent of the average of the nozzles (or cluster of nozzles) or hoppers. Finally, replace worn or damaged nozzles or hoppers if the output is beyond 10 percent of the average.

You can check for uniform output in two ways. Either method requires that you attach containers to collect the output from each nozzle, nozzle cluster, or hopper. The first method is to operate the equipment for a set period of time and compare the amount of output in each container to the amount desired. The second option is to operate the equipment over a measured area while calibrating the equipment and, at the end of the calibration run, compare the amount of output in each container to the amount desired. If all the nozzles or hoppers are intended to release an equal amount of pesticide, just check to see whether all the containers contain the same amount.




Application Equipment

‘‘Application Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The pesticide application equipment you use is important to the success of your pest control job. First, you must select the right kind of application equipment; then you must use it correctly and take good care of it.

This unit provides an overview of some things you should know about choosing, using, and caring for equipment. To use your pesticide application equipment safely and effectively, study the manufacturer's directions carefully. Some pesticide applications -- such as airblast spraying, fumigation, aerial application, and chemigation -- are highly specialized. You will need special training to use the equipment these applications require.


Application Equipment for Animals , Bait Application Equipment -- Bait Stations

‘‘Application Equipment for Animals , Bait Application Equipment -- Bait Stations; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Bait stations hold pesticide-treated food that attracts target pests. They are used for insect control around poultry and livestock housing and for vertebrate control around crops, commodities, and agricultural buildings.


Application Equipment for Animals , Bait Application Equipment -- Bait Applicators

‘‘Application Equipment for Animals , Bait Application Equipment -- Bait Applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Bait applicators are used to apply pesticides to control gophers, moles, and other underground vertebrate pests. Some hand-operated models inject the poisoned bait directly into underground burrows. Mechanical models are tractor-mounted machines that form artificial burrows that intersect with natural burrows. When the pests use the artificial burrows, they feed on the bait.


Application Equipment for Animals , Dipping Vats

‘‘Application Equipment for Animals , Dipping Vats; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Dipping vats are large tanks (vats) of liquid pesticide mixture used to treat livestock for external parasites. Portable dipping vats are usually trailer-mounted tanks with a set of folding ramps and railings. The animals are driven up the ramp onto a platform and forced into the tank so they are completely immersed. The animal's head may have to be pushed under the surface.

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Maintaining the proper concentration of pesticide in the vat is very important. The vat should be kept at least 7/8 full at all times. Replenishment is usually based on a knowledge of the amount of liquid removed from the vat.


Application Equipment for Animals , Dust Boxes

‘‘Application Equipment for Animals , Dust Boxes; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Dust boxes are used mainly in raised wire battery-type cages for laying hens or other poultry. These boxes contain a pesticide dust used to control poultry pests, usually mites. Birds wallow in the boxes and pick up the dust on their feathers and skin.


Application Equipment for Animals , Face and Back Rubbers and Dust Bags

‘‘Application Equipment for Animals , Face and Back Rubbers and Dust Bags; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Face and back rubbers and dust bags are containers of dry or liquid pesticide formulation used to control external parasites of livestock. The devices are hung or mounted in areas adjacent to high livestock traffic, such as feeding troughs, waterers, and narrow gate entrances. When the animal rubs against the device, the pesticide is transferred to the animal's face, back, sides, or legs.

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Application Equipment for Animals , Spray-Dip Machines

‘‘Application Equipment for Animals , Spray-Dip Machines; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Spray-dip machines are used to treat livestock for external parasites. A spray- dip machine usually consists of a trailer-mounted chute with solid walls and gates at either end. The chute is located above a shallow tank and is equipped with several rows of large nozzles mounted in a manner that directs the spray mixture to thoroughly cover each animal. A large centrifugal pump supplies the pesticide to the nozzle. Surplus and runoff spray falls back into the tank where it is filtered and recycled to the nozzles.


Application Equipment, Aerosol Generators and Foggers

‘‘Application Equipment, Aerosol Generators and Foggers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘


Aerosol generators and foggers convert special formulations into very small, fine droplets (aerosols). Single droplets cannot be seen, but large numbers of droplets are visible as a fog or mist. Aerosol generators and foggers usually are used to completely fill a space with a pesticidal fog. Some insects in the treated area are killed when they come in contact with the poison. Other insects are simply repelled by the mist and return quickly after it has settled.

Thermal foggers, also called thermal generators, use heat to vaporize a special oil formulation of a pesticide. As the pesticide vapor is released into the cooler air, it condenses into very fine droplets, producing a fog.

Other aerosol generators (cold foggers) break the pesticide into aerosols by using mechanical methods such as:

  • rapidly spinning disks,
  • extremely fine nozzles and high pressure (atomizing nozzles),
  • strong blasts of air.

Advantages:

  • penetration in dense foliage,
  • penetration of cracks and crevices,
  • some indoor devices are automatic and do not require presence of applicator.

Limitations:

  • aerosols and fogs drift easily from target area,
  • no residual control -- pests may return to the area as soon as fog dissipates,
  • risk of explosion in enclosed areas.


Application Equipment, Aerosol Generators and Foggers -- Selection, Use, and Care

‘‘Application Equipment, Aerosol Generators and Foggers -- Selection, Use, and Care; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Choose an aerosol generator according to where you will use it -- indoors or outdoors. Aerosol and fog generators are manufactured for many special uses. There are truck- and trailer-mounted machines for use outdoors. Most hand-operated or permanently mounted automatic machines are for use indoors.

In general, use and care for an aerosol generator as you would a sprayer. They do require several special precautions, however:

  • Be sure that the pesticides used in the aerosol and fog generators are registered for that use.
  • Keep the pesticides on the target.
  • Because aerosol and fog formulations are easily affected by weather conditions during application, follow special use instructions.
  • The operator, other people, and animals should stay out of the fog or smoke cloud.


Application Equipment, Dusters

‘‘Application Equipment, Dusters; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Dusters are used only occasionally in outdoor agricultural situations, because of the high probability of drift. Dust applications are more common in greenhouses and other enclosed agricultural areas.


Application Equipment, Dusters -- Granule Applicators

‘‘Application Equipment, Dusters -- Granule Applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Granule applicators distribute granular pesticides by several different methods, including:

  • forced air,
  • spinning or whirling disks (fertilizer spreaders),
  • multiple gravity-feed outlets (lawn spreaders, grain drills),
  • soil injectors (furrow treatments),
  • ram-air (agricultural aircraft).

Granule applicators may be designed to apply the pesticides:

  • broadcast -- even distribution over the entire area,
  • to specific areas -- banding, in-furrow, side-dress,
  • by drilling -- soil incorporation or soil injection.

Advantages:

  • simple in design,
  • eliminates mixing -- no water needed,
  • minimal drift hazard,
  • low exposure hazard to applicator.

Limitations:

  • limited use against some pests because granules will not adhere to most foliage,
  • need to calibrate for each different granular formulation,
  • spinning disk types may give poor lateral distribution, especially on side slopes.


Application Equipment, Dusters -- Hand dusters

‘‘Application Equipment, Dusters -- Hand dusters; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Hand dusters may consist of a squeeze bulb, bellows, tube, shaker, sliding tube, or a fan powered by a hand crank.

Advantages:

  • lightweight -- do not require water,
  • the pesticide is ready to apply without mixing,
  • good penetration in confined spaces.

Limitations:

  • dust may not stick to foliage,
  • dust is difficult to direct,
  • drift potential is high.


Application Equipment, Dusters -- Power dusters

‘‘Application Equipment, Dusters -- Power dusters; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Power dusters use a powered fan or blower to propel the dust to the target. They include knapsack or backpack types, units mounted on or pulled by tractors, and specialized equipment for treating seeds. Their capacity in area treated per hour compares favorably with some sprayers.

Advantages:

  • lightweight -- no water required,
  • simply built,
  • easy to maintain.

Limitations:

  • drift hazards,
  • application may be less uniform than with sprays,
  • dust may not stick to foliage.


Application Equipment, Dusters -- Selection, Use, and Care

‘‘Application Equipment, Dusters -- Selection, Use, and Care; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Look for a power duster that is easy to clean. It should give a uniform application rate as the hopper is emptied. Look for both hand and power dusters that direct the dust cloud away from the user.

Choose a granule applicator that is easy to clean and fill. It should have mechanical agitation over the outlet holes. This prevents clogging and helps keep the flow rate constant. Application should stop when drive stops even if outlets are still open.

Both dusters and granule applicators are speed-sensitive, so maintain uniform speed. Do not travel too fast for ground conditions. Bouncing equipment will cause the application rate to vary. Stay out of any dust created by action of the equipment.

Watch band applicators to see that band width stays the same. Small height changes due to changing soil conditions may cause rapid changes in band width. Clean equipment as directed by the operator's manual.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The equipment needed for applying soil fumigants depends on the kind of fumigant being used. There are two types of fumigants:

  • low-pressure (low volatility) liquid fumigants, and
  • highly volatile fumigants that remain as liquids only when placed under pressure.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Drenching or flooding

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Drenching or flooding; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These methods use water as a sealant. The fumigant may be applied in the water as a drench. The equipment needed depends on the size and timing of the application. The fumigant-containing water may be applied with a sprinkling can, sprinkler system, or irrigation equipment.

Another way to apply the fumigant is to first spray the pesticide on the soil surface and then immediately flood the area. The depth of the water seal (usually 1/2 to 4 inches of wetted soil) depends on the volatility of the fumigant.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- High-Pressure Fumigators

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- High-Pressure Fumigators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Effective application of highly volatile fumigants depends on tightly sealing the soil with tarps, plastic film, or similar covers. There are two major methods of using vapor-proof tarps:

  • Tarp supported off the ground and sealed around the edges; fumigant introduced under the tarp.
  • Tarp applied to the soil by the injection chisel equipment immediately after the fumigant is injected.

Highly volatile fumigants must be handled in pressurized containers or tanks. The equipment is similar to gravity-flow low-pressure fumigators. The pressure in the tank maintains the line pressure to the nozzle orifices.

The tank is either pre-charged with enough pressure to empty its contents, or an inert pressurized gas is fed into the tank during application to displace the fumigant. A gas regulator maintains uniform pressure in the system. To ensure accurate application, the fumigant must be under enough pressure to maintain a liquid state in the tank, pressure lines, manifold, and metering devices.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Low-Pressure Liquid Fumigators

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Low-Pressure Liquid Fumigators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Equipment for applying low-pressure fumigants varies widely, but uses two basic designs for metering and delivering the fumigant. These delivery systems are either pressure (pump)-fed or gravity-fed.

Pressure-fed applicators have a pump and metering device and deliver fumigant under pressure to the nozzle openings (orifices) as with a low-pressure sprayer.

Gravity-flow applicators use the size of the nozzle orifice and the pressure created by gravity to regulate the output of fumigant. Constant speed is necessary to maintain a uniform delivery rate. Most applicators have a device that keeps the pressure at the orifice constant as the tank or container of fumigant empties. Needle valves, orifice plates or disks, and capillary tubes are used to adjust the flow rate.

Low-pressure fumigators usually use the soil itself or water to keep the fumigant from vaporizing and moving off target too quickly. Some of the methods used are:

  • soil injection,
  • soil incorporation,
  • drenching or flooding.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Selection of

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Selection of; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pumps, tanks, fittings, nozzles or metering orifices, and lines must be corrosion resistant. Soil injection knives should be designed to shed crop residues and allow the soil to seal over the fumigant. Choose high-pressure fumigators designed to handle both the pressure created by the fumigant and the corrosive action of the product you plan to use.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Soil incorporation

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Soil incorporation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Soil incorporators are used when applying low-volatility fumigants. The fumigant usually is sprayed onto the soil surface. The area is immediately cultivated, usually to a depth of 5 inches or less, to incorporate the fumigant. Then the soil is compacted with a drag, float, or cultipacker. Power-driven rotary cultivators are also used.


Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Soil injection

‘‘Application Equipment, Soil Fumigation Equipment -- Soil injection; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Soil injectors use a variety of mechanisms to insert the fumigant into the soil (usually at least 6 inches deep) and then cover the area with soil to seal in the fumigant. The principal mechanisms include chisel cultivators, blades, or shovels; sweep cultivator shovels; planter shoes; and plows.


Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment

‘‘Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

You may sometimes use other types of equipment that is designed for specialized applications. Some of this specialized equipment is intended for application of herbicides. Other specialized application equipment is for applying pesticides through irrigation or watering systems.

Specialized Application Equipment for Herbicides

Some application equipment is designed to apply herbicides so that the herbicide contacts the weeds, but does not contact desirable plants in the treated area. This equipment includes:

  • recirculating sprayers,
  • shielded applicators,
  • wiper applicators,
  • wax bar applicators.


Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Irrigation Application Equipment

‘‘Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Irrigation Application Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Irrigation or watering systems can be equipped to deliver pesticides to a target. Known as "chemigation," this is a common method for applying pesticides in many irrigated areas. Accurate calibration and distribution are achieved by metering a large volume of dilute pesticide into the irrigation system. Antisiphon check valves prevent contamination of the irrigation water source and switch valves prevent overflow into the slurry feed tank.

Advantages:

  • convenient,
  • field access unnecessary.

Limitations:

  • constant agitation needed in slurry tank,
  • application of more water per acre than recommended on label will cause some pesticides to leach,
  • sprinkler distribution must have appropriate overlap pattern for uniform delivery,
  • injection of pesticides into flood and furrow irrigation systems may result in uneven concentrations of pesticides throughout the field, depending on soil permeability and field contours.



Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Recirculating sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Recirculating sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These devices usually are used to apply contact herbicides to weeds that are taller than the crop in which they are growing. Solid streams of highly concentrated herbicides are directed across rows above the crop. The system prevents the herbicide from contacting the desirable plants. Spray material that is not intercepted by the weeds is caught in a box or sump on the opposite side of the row and is recirculated. Advantages:

  • uses small quantities of pesticide,
  • less pesticide moves off target and into environment,
  • permits treatment of weeds that have escaped other control measures,
  • protects susceptible nontarget plants from injury.

Limitations:

  • use limited to special situations.


Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Shielded applicators

‘‘Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Shielded applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These applicators direct the herbicide onto the weeds while shielding desirable plants from the herbicide.


Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Wax bars

‘‘Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Wax bars; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Herbicides are sometimes applied with wax bars that are impregnated with herbicides. The bars are dragged slowly over the area to be protected.

Advantages:

  • no drift,
  • no calibration.

Limitations:

  • highly specialized, not readily available.


Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Wiper applicators

‘‘Application Equipment, Specialized Application Equipment -- Wiper applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sometimes called "wick" or "rope" applicators, these devices are used to apply herbicides selectively to weeds in crop areas. Wicks made of rope, rollers made of carpet or other material, or absorbent pads made of sponges or fabric are kept wet with a concentrated mixture of herbicide and water and brought into direct contact with weeds. The herbicide is "wiped" onto the weeds, but does not come in contact with the crop.

Application may be to tall weeds growing above the crop or to lower weeds between rows, depending on the way the wiper elements are designed. Pumps, control devices, and nozzles are minimal or are eliminated altogether, and tanks are quite small because of the small amount of liquid applied.

Advantages:

  • simple to operate,
  • no drift,
  • uses small amount of pesticide.

Limitations:

  • useful only in special situations,
  • difficult to calibrate.


Application Equipment, Sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sprayers are the most common pesticide application equipment. They are standard equipment for nearly every pesticide applicator and are used in every type of pest control operation. Sprayers range in size and complexity from simple, hand-held models to intricate machines weighing several tons.


Application Equipment, Sprayer -- Selection, Use, and Care

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer -- Selection, Use, and Care; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Choosing the correct sprayer for each job is important. Your sprayer should be:

  • designed to do the job you want to do,
  • durable,
  • convenient to fill, operate, and clean.

Always read and follow the operator's manuals. They will tell you how to use and care for your spray equipment. After each use, rinse the entire system. Check for leaks in lines, valves, seals, and tank. Remove and clean nozzles, nozzle screens, and strainers.

Be alert for nozzle clogging and changes in nozzle patterns. If nozzles clog or other trouble occurs in the field, be careful not to contaminate yourself while correcting the problem. Shut off the sprayer and move it to the edge of the field before dismounting. Wear personal protective equipment while making repairs. Clean clogged nozzles only with a non-metal nozzle-cleaning tool. Sharp metal can ruin the nozzle. Never use your mouth to blow out a nozzle.

To prepare spray equipment for storage, follow manufacturer's instructions. If there are no instructions, rinse and clean the system. Then fill the tank almost full with clean water. Add a small amount of new lightweight oil to the tank. Coat the system by pumping this mixture out through the nozzles or handgun. Drain the pump and plug its openings or fill the pump with lightweight oil or antifreeze. Remove nozzles and nozzle screens and store in lightweight oil or diesel fuel.



Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators, Bypass

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators, Bypass; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Bypass agitation uses the returning liquid from the pressure relief valve to agitate the tank. The return must extend to the bottom of the tank to prevent excessive foaming. Bypass agitation is sufficient for soluble powders and for liquid formulations such as solutions and emulsifiable concentrates that do not require much agitation.

Do not use bypass agitation for wettable powders or in tanks larger than 55 gallons, unless the system has a centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pumps usually have large enough outputs to make bypass agitation adequate even for wettable powders in tanks less than 100 gallons.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators, Hydraulic (jet action)

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators, Hydraulic (jet action); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Hydraulic agitation is provided by the high-pressure flow of surplus spray material from the pump. Hydraulic agitation is required for wettable powder and flowable formulations in small tanks and for liquid formulations in 100-gallon or larger tanks with gear, roller, piston, or diaphragm pumps.

The jet or jets for a hydraulic agitator are located at the bottom of the tank. The agitator is connected to the pressure side of the pump. Never place jet agitator nozzles in the bypass line.

The pump and tank capacity and operating pressure determine the minimum number of jets:

  • 55 gallons = 1 or more jets,
  • 100 to 150 gallons = 3 or more jets,
  • 200 gallons and larger = 5 or more jets.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators, Mechanical

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators, Mechanical; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Wettable powder formulations are best mixed and kept in suspension with mechanical agitation. The mechanical agitator usually consists of flat blades or propellers mounted on a shaft that is placed lengthwise along the bottom of the tank. The paddles or propellers are rotated by the engine to keep the material well mixed. Mechanical agitators are usually found only on large high-pressure hydraulic sprayers.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Agitators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Every sprayer must have agitation to keep the spray material uniformly mixed. If there is too little agitation, the pesticide will be applied unevenly. If there is too much agitation, some pesticides may foam and interfere with pump and nozzle operation. The type of agitation needed depends on the pesticide formulation.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Control Valves

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Control Valves; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Quick-acting cutoff valves should be located between the pressure regulator and the nozzles to provide positive on-off action. These control valves should be rated for the pressures you intend to use and should be large enough not to restrict flow when open. Cutoff valves to stop all flow or flow to any section of the spraying system should be within easy reach of the sprayer operator.

There are many kinds of control valves. Mechanical valves must be accessible to the operator's hand; electrically operated valves permit remote control of flow. For tractors or self-propelled sprayers with enclosed cabs, remote-controlled valves permit all hoses carrying pesticides to be kept safely outside the cab.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Hoses

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Hoses; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Select neoprene, rubber, or plastic hoses that:

  • have burst strength greater than the peak operating pressures,
  • have a working pressure at least equal to the maximum operating pressure,
  • resist oil and solvents present in pesticides,
  • are weather resistant.

Suction hoses should be reinforced to resist collapse. They should be larger than pressure hoses, with an inside diameter equal to or larger than the inlet part of the pump. All fittings on suction lines should be as large as or larger than the inlet part of the pump.

Keep hoses from kinking or being rubbed. Flush hoses after use and wash them often to prolong life. During the off-season, store the sprayer out of the sun. Replace hoses at the first sign of surface deterioration (cracking or checking).


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Large Tanks

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Large Tanks; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Tanks should have large openings for easy filling and cleaning. Tanks should be designed to allow the use of strainers during filling, and also should allow mechanical or hydraulic agitation devices to be installed. The tank should be made of corrosion-resistant material such as stainless steel or fiberglass. If made of mild steel, it should have a protective lining or coating.

The tank should have a large drain, and other outlets should be sized to the pump capacity. If you use dual tanks, make sure the plumbing allows both tanks to have agitation and adequate withdrawal rates. All tanks should have a gauge to show the liquid level. External gauges should be protected to prevent breakage. All tanks should have a shutoff valve for storing liquid pesticide temporarily while other sprayer parts are being serviced.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle Materials

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle Materials; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Most nozzle parts are available in several materials. Here are the main features of each kind:

  • Brass:

o resists corrosion from most pesticides,

o wears quickly from abrasion,

o probably the best material for general use,

o may be corroded by liquid fertilizers.

  • Plastic:

o will not corrode,

o resists abrasion better than brass,

o may swell when exposed to some solvents,

o useful life about equal to that of brass nozzles.

  • Stainless steel:

o resists abrasion, especially if hardened,

o good corrosion resistance,

o suited for high pressures, especially with wettable powders,

o lasts longer than brass.

  • Aluminum:

o resists some corrosive materials,

o easily corroded by some fertilizers,

o useful life much shorter than brass.

  • Tungsten carbide and ceramic:

o highly resistant to abrasion and corrosion,

o best material for high pressures and wettable powders,

o lasts much longer than brass.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle, Cone pattern

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle, Cone pattern; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Hollow and solid cone patterns are produced by several types of nozzles. These patterns are used where penetration and coverage of plant foliage or other irregular targets are desired. They are most often used to apply fungicides and insecticides to foliage, although some types are used for broadcast soil applications of herbicides or fertilizers or combinations of the two.

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When cone pattern nozzles are used for airblast sprayer broadcast application, they should be angled to spray between 15degrees and 30degrees from the horizontal and should be spaced at the top of the manifold so the spray pattern will overlap up to 100 percent. The side-entry hollow cone or "whirl-chamber" nozzle produces a very wide angle hollow cone spray pattern at very low pressures. It has a large opening and resists clogging. Because of the wide spray angle, the boom can be operated low, reducing drift. Spacing for double coverage and angling 15degrees to 45degrees to the rear is recommended for uniform application. These nozzles may be used in place of flat fan nozzle tips in broadcast applications.

Core-insert cone nozzles produce either a solid or hollow cone spray pattern. They operate at moderate pressures and give a finely atomized spray. They should not be used for wettable powders because their small passages clog easily and they wear rapidly due to abrasion.

Disk-core nozzles produce a cone-shaped spray pattern, which may be hollow or solid. The spray angle depends on the combination of disk and core used and also, to some extent, on the pressure. Disks made of very hard materials resist abrasion well, so these nozzles are recommended for spraying wettable powders at high pressures.

Adjustable cone nozzles change their spray angle from a wide cone pattern to a solid stream when the nozzle collar is turned. Many manual sprayers are equipped with this type of nozzle. Handguns for power sprayers have adjustable nozzles that usually use an internal core to vary the spray angle.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle, Fan pattern

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle, Fan pattern; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

At least three types of nozzle tips have fan patterns. They are used mostly for uniform spray coverage of surfaces; for example, broadcast soil applications of herbicides or insecticides.

The regular flat fan nozzle tip makes a narrow oval pattern with tapered ends. It is used for broadcast herbicide and insecticide spraying at 15 to 60 psi. The pattern is designed to be used on a boom and to be overlapped 30 to 50 percent for even distribution. Spacing on the boom, spray angle, and boom height determine proper overlap and should be carefully controlled.

The even flat fan nozzle makes a narrow oval pattern. Spray delivery is uniform across its width. It is used for band spraying and for treating walls and other surfaces. It is not useful for broadcast applications. Boom height and nozzle spray angle determine the width of the band sprayed.

The flooding (flat fan) nozzle delivers a wide-angle flat spray pattern. It operates at very low pressure and produces large spray droplets. Its pattern is fairly uniform across its width but not as even as the regular flat fan nozzle pattern. If used for broadcast spraying, it should be overlapped to provide double coverage. It is often used for applying liquid fertilizers or fertilizer-pesticide mixtures or for directing herbicide sprays up under plant canopies.

Cluster nozzles are used either without a boom or at the end of booms to extend the effective swath width. One type is simply a large flooding deflector nozzle that will spread spray droplets over a swath up to 70 feet wide from a single nozzle tip. Cluster nozzles are a combination of a center-discharge and two or more off-center-discharge fan nozzles.

The spray droplets vary in size from very small to very large. The small droplets may cause a drift problem. Coverage may be variable because the spray pattern is not uniform. Since no boom is required, these nozzles are particularly well suited for spraying hedgerows, fence rows, and other hard-to-reach locations where uniform coverage is not critical.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle, Solid stream

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzle, Solid stream; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These nozzles are used in handgun sprayers to spray a distant or specific target such as livestock or tree pests.

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They also are used for crack and crevice treatment in and around buildings. Solid stream nozzles may be attached to booms to apply pesticides in a narrow band or inject them into the soil.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzles

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Nozzles; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Most nozzles have four major parts: the nozzle body <I file="graphics\nozz1.jpg"></H>, the cap <I file="graphics\nozz2.jpg"></H>, the strainer (screen) <I file="graphics\nozz3.jpg"></H>, and the tip or orifice plate <I file="graphics\nozz4.jpg"></H>.

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They also may include a separate spinner plate. Successful spraying depends on the correct selection, assembly, and maintenance of the nozzles.

The nozzle body holds the strainer and tip in proper position. Several types of tips that produce a variety of spray patterns may be interchanged on a single nozzle body made by the same manufacturer.

The cap is used to secure the strainer and the tip to the body. The cap should not be overtightened.

The nozzle strainer is placed in the nozzle body to screen out debris that may clog the nozzle opening. The type of nozzle strainer needed depends on the size of the nozzle opening and the chemical being sprayed.

Special nozzle screens equipped with a check valve help prevent nozzle dripping. Check valves should be used in situations where a sprayer must be stopped and started frequently, such as in small target areas, near sensitive crops or areas, indoors, or for right-of-way treatments. The operator must check these spring-loaded ball valves frequently to be sure they are working properly.

Nozzle tips break the liquid pesticide into droplets. They also distribute the spray in a predetermined pattern and are the principal element that controls the rate of application. Nozzle performance depends on:

  • nozzle design or type,
  • operating pressure,
  • size of the opening,
  • discharge angle,
  • distance of nozzle from the target.

Nozzle patterns are of three basic types: solid stream, fan, and cone. Some special-purpose nozzle tips or devices produce special patterns. These include "raindrops," "flooding," and others that produce wide-angle fan or cone-shaped patterns.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pressure Gauges

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pressure Gauges; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pressure gauges monitor the line pressure of your spraying system. They must be accurate and have the range needed for your work. For example, a 0 to 100 psi gauge with 2-pound gradations would be adequate for most low-pressure sprayers.

Check frequently for accuracy against an accurate gauge. Excess pressure will destroy a gauge. If yours does not zero, replace it. Use gauge protectors to guard against corrosive pesticides and pressure surges.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pressure Regulators

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pressure Regulators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The pressure regulator controls the pressure and, indirectly, the quantity of spray material delivered by the nozzles. It protects pump seals, hoses, and other sprayer parts from damage caused by excessive pressure.

Keep the bypass line from the pressure regulator to the tank fully open and unrestricted. The bypass line should be large enough to carry the total pump output without excess pressure buildup. The pressure range and flow capacity of the regulator must match the pressure range you plan to use and the capacity of the pump. Never attach mechanical agitation devices to the bypass line discharge.

Pressure regulators are usually one of three types:

Throttling valves simply restrict pump output, depending on how much the valve is open. These valves are used with centrifugal pumps, whose output is very sensitive to the amount of restriction in the output line.

Spring-loaded bypass valves (with or without a diaphragm) open or close in response to changes in pressure, diverting more or less liquid back to the tank to keep pressure constant. These valves are used with roller, diaphragm, gear, and small piston pumps.

Unloader valves work like a spring-loaded bypass valve when the sprayer is operating. However, when the nozzles are shut down, they reduce strain on the pump by moving the overflow back into the tank at low pressure. These valves should be used on larger piston and diaphragm pumps to avoid damage to the pump or other system components when the nozzles are cut off.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The pump must have enough capacity to supply the needed volume to the nozzles and to the hydraulic agitator (if necessary) and to maintain the desired pressure. The pump parts should resist corrosion, and they should be abrasion-resistant if abrasive materials such as wettable powders will be used. Select gaskets, plunger caps, and impellers that resist the swelling and chemical breakdown caused by many liquid pesticides. Consult your dealer for available options.

Never operate a sprayer pump at speeds or pressures above those recommended by the manufacturer. Pumps will be damaged if operated when dry or with restricted flow at the inlet or outlet. Pumps depend on the spray liquid for lubrication and for cooling the heat caused by friction.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Centrifugal pumps

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Centrifugal pumps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Centrifugal pumps are adaptable to a wide variety of spray applications. Generally, they deliver high volume (up to 200 gpm) at low pressures (5 to 70 psi); however, two-stage pumps develop high pressures (up to 200 psi). Pressure regulators and relief valves are not necessary.

Centrifugal pumps are not self-priming and must be mounted below the tank outlet or provided with a built-in priming system. Centrifugal pumps are well adapted for spraying abrasive materials, because the impeller does not contact the pump housing. Many models are easily repairable. The pump case is usually iron; the impeller is iron or bronze.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Diaphragm pumps

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Diaphragm pumps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Diaphragm pumps are generally used to deliver low volume (3 to 10 gpm) at low to moderate pressures (10 to 100 psi), but they also can be used for high-volume, high-pressure applications.

Diaphragm pumps withstand abrasion from wettable powder mixtures much better than gear, roller, or piston pumps because the spray mixture does not contact any moving metal parts except the valves. Diaphragm pumps are self-priming. The rubber or neoprene diaphragm may be damaged by some solvents; the pump case is usually iron.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Gear pumps

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Gear pumps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Gear pumps are used on sprayers with low operating pressures. They provide low to moderate volume (5 to 65 gpm) at low to moderate pressures (20 to 100 psi). Gear pumps are self-priming, but the self-priming ability is rapidly lost as the pump wears.

Gear pumps are designed for use with formulations that use oil as a diluent. They wear rapidly when wettable powders are used. The parts are generally not replaceable. The pump is not affected by most solvents, because all parts are metal. The pump case may be bronze with stainless steel impellers, or it may be made entirely of bronze.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Piston pumps

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Piston pumps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Piston pumps deliver low to medium volumes (2 to 60 gpm) at low to high pressures (20 to 800 psi). Used for high-pressure sprayers or when both low and high pressures are needed, piston pumps are self-priming. They have replaceable piston cups made of leather, neoprene, or nylon fabric, making the pump abrasion-resistant and capable of handling wettable powders for many years. The cylinders are iron, stainless steel, or porcelain-lined. The pump casing is usually iron.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Roller pumps

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Pumps, Roller pumps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Roller pumps are the most widely used of all sprayer pumps. They provide moderate volumes (8 to 30 gpm) at low to moderate pressure (10 to 300 psi). Often used on low-pressure sprayers, roller pumps are self-priming. The pump case is usually cast iron or a nickel-iron alloy.

The rollers, made of nylon, Teflon, or rubber, wear rapidly in wettable powders but are replaceable. A pump subjected to such wear should have a capacity about 50 percent greater than that needed to supply the nozzles and agitator. This reserve capacity will extend the life of the pump.

Roller pumps are usually the best choice for emulsifiable concentrates, soluble powders, and other pesticide formulations that are not abrasive.


Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Strainers (Filters)

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayer Parts -- Strainers (Filters); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide mixtures should be filtered to remove dirt, rust flakes, and other foreign materials from the tank mixture. Proper filtering protects the working parts of the sprayer from undue wear and avoids time loss and uneven application caused by clogged nozzle tips.

Filtering should be progressive, with the largest mesh screens in the filler opening and in the suction line between the tank and the pump. Filters should be keyed to the size of the nozzle opening. Total screen area should be large enough so that the flow will not be restricted. This requires at least 2 square inches of screen area for each gpm of flow in the suction line.

Put a smaller mesh strainer in the pressure line between the pump and the pressure regulator, with at least 1 square inch of screen area for each gpm of flow. Put the finest mesh strainer on the nozzle body. Do not use a strainer in the suction line of a centrifugal pump, but be sure the tank has a strainer to take out large particles.

In general, strainers should be placed:

  • on the filler opening (12 to 25 mesh),
  • on the suction or supply line to the pump (15 to 40 mesh).
  • between the pressure relief valve and the boom (25 to
  • 100 mesh).
  • on the nozzle body (50 to 100 mesh).

Clean strainers after each use, or during use if they become clogged. A shutoff valve is needed between the tank and the suction strainer to allow the strainer to be cleaned without draining the tank. Replace damaged or deteriorated strainers.

Strainers are your best defense against nozzle plugging and pump wear. Nozzle screens should be as large as nozzle size permits; however, the screen opening should be less than the nozzle opening. Check nozzle catalogs for the proper screen size for each nozzle.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Airblast Sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Airblast Sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Airblast sprayers use a combination of air and liquid to deliver the pesticide to the surface being treated.

These sprayers usually include the same components as low-pressure or high-pressure sprayers, plus a high-speed fan. Nozzles operating under low pressure deliver spray droplets directly into the high-speed airstream. The air blast shatters the drops of pesticide into fine droplets and transports them to the target. The air blast is directed to one or both sides as the sprayer moves forward, or it may be delivered through a movable nozzle.

Most airblast sprayers are trailer-mounted, but tractor-mounted models are available. Tank capacity ranges from 100 to 1,000 gallons. Most of these sprayers can be adapted to apply either high or low volumes of spray material as well as concentrates. Mechanical agitation of the spray mixture is usual. An airblast sprayer may cover a swath up to 90 feet wide and reach trees up to 70 feet tall.

Advantages:

  • good coverage and penetration,
  • mechanical agitation,
  • high capacity,
  • can spray high or low volumes,
  • low pump pressures.

Limitations:

  • drift hazards,
  • use of concentrated pesticides may increase chance of dosage errors,
  • not suitable for windy conditions,
  • hard to confine discharge to limited target area,
  • difficult to use in small areas,
  • high power requirement and fuel use.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Backpack (knapsack) sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Backpack (knapsack) sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

One type of backpack sprayer is a compressed air sprayer with a harness that allows it to be carried on the operator's back.

Another type of backpack sprayer has a hand-operated hydraulic pump that forces liquid pesticide through a hose and one or more nozzles. The pump is usually activated by moving a lever. A mechanical agitator plate may be attached to the pump plunger. Some of these sprayers can generate pressures of 100 pounds per square inch (psi) or more.

Capacity of both these types of backpack sprayers is usually 5 gallons or less.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Boom sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Boom sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Low-pressure sprayers often are equipped with sprayer booms ranging from 10 to 60 feet in length. The most common booms are between 20 and 35 feet long and contain several nozzles. The height of the sprayer boom must be easily adjustable to meet the needs of the job. Boom supports should allow the boom to be set at any height from 12 to 72 inches above the surface being sprayed. Many nozzle arrangements are possible, and special-purpose booms are available.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Boomless sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Boomless sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Low-pressure sprayers that are not equipped with booms generally have a central nozzle cluster that produces a horizontal spray pattern. The resulting swath is similar to the pattern made by a boom sprayer. These sprayers are useful in irregularly shaped areas, because they can move through narrow places and avoid trees and other obstacles. Some low-pressure sprayers are equipped with a hose and handgun nozzle for applications in small or hard-to-reach areas.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Bucket or trombone sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Bucket or trombone sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These sprayers involve a double-action hydraulic pump, which is operated with a push-pull motion. The pesticide is sucked into the cylinder and pushed out through the hose and nozzle with the return stroke. Pressures up to 150 psi can be generated. The separate tank often consists of a bucket with a capacity of 5 gallons or less.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Compressed air sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Compressed air sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This is usually a hand-carried sprayer that operates under pressure created by a self-contained manual pump. The air in the tank is compressed by the pump. The compressed air forces liquid pesticide through the hose and nozzle whenever the control valve is opened. A few types of these sprayers use carbon dioxide cartridges instead of a hand pump for compression. Capacity is usually 1/2 to 3 gallons.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Controlled droplet applicators (CDA)

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Controlled droplet applicators (CDA); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These applicators use a spinning disk (or cup) that breaks the liquid into uniformly sized droplets by centrifugal force. The droplets may be carried to the target by gravity or by an airstream created by a fan. Power to spin the disk or cup is provided by a small electric or hydraulic motor. Most CDA's do not use a pump. CDA's range in size from a small hand-held type to large tractor-mounted and trailer-mounted units.

Advantages:

  • requires a low volume of water,
  • produces narrower range of droplet sizes than conventional nozzles, thus reducing drift,
  • droplet size can be adjusted by speed of rotation.

Limitations:

  • gravity type may not penetrate foliage well,
  • not suitable for use in windy conditions.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Electrostatic sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Electrostatic sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Electrostatic sprayer systems give the pesticide a positive electric charge as it leaves the nozzles. Plants naturally have a negative charge, so the positively charged pesticide is attracted to the plants. The spray is directed horizontally through or above the crop (depending on the pesticide being applied).

Advantages:

  • pesticide adheres to foliage well, so less pesticide is needed per acre,
  • coverage is more even than with other types of equipment,
  • minimizes the likelihood of drift.

Limitation:

  • useful only for application to foliage.



Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Estate sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Estate sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These sprayers are mounted on a two-wheel cart with handles for pushing. Trailer hitches are available for towing the units. Spray material is hydraulically agitated. Some models have 15- to 30-gallon tanks. Pumps deliver 1-1/2 to 3 gallons per minute at pressures up to 250 psi.

Larger models have 50-gallon tanks and pumps that deliver 3 to 4 gallons per minute at pressures up to 400 psi. Power is supplied by an air-cooled engine of up to 5 horsepower.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Hand

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Hand; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Hand sprayers are often used to apply small quantities of pesticides. They can be used in structures, and they can be used outside for spot treatments or in hard-to-reach areas. Most operate on compressed air supplied by a hand pump.

Advantages:

  • simple to operate,
  • easy to clean and store.

Limitations:

  • pressure and output rate fluctuate,
  • often provide too little agitation to keep wettable powders in suspension; must be shaken frequently.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Hose-end sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Hose-end sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This device causes a fixed rate of pesticide to mix with the water flowing through the hose to which it is attached. The mixture is expelled through a high-volume nozzle. These sprayers usually hold no more than 1 quart of concentrated pesticide, but because the concentrate mixes with the water, they may deliver 20 gallons or more of finished spray solution per fill.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Large Power-Driven Sprayers (Low Pressure)

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Large Power-Driven Sprayers (Low Pressure); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These sprayers are designed to distribute dilute liquid pesticides over large areas. They deliver a low to moderate volume of spray -- usually 10 to 60 gallons per acre -- at working pressures ranging from 10 to 80 psi.

These sprayers usually are mounted on tractors, trucks, or boats, but some are self-propelled. Roller pumps and centrifugal pumps are most often used and provide outputs from 5 to more than 20 gallons per acre. Tank sizes range from less than 50 gallons to 1,000 gallons. The spray material usually is hydraulically agitated, but mechanical agitation may be used.

Advantages:

  • medium to large tanks permit relatively large area to be covered per fill,
  • versatility.

Limitations:

  • low pressure limits pesticide penetration and reach.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Large Power-Driven Sprayers (High Pressure)

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Large Power-Driven Sprayers (High Pressure); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These sprayers are used to spray through dense foliage, thick animal hair, to the tops of tall trees, and into other areas where high-pressure sprays are necessary for adequate penetration and reach. Often called "hydraulic" sprayers, they are equipped to deliver large volumes of spray -- usually 20 to 500 gallons per acre -- under pressures ranging from 150 to 400 psi or more.

These sprayers usually are mounted on tractors, trailers, trucks, or boats, or are self-propelled. Piston pumps are used and provide outputs up to 60 gallons or more per minute. Large tanks (500 to 1,000 gallons) are required, because the application rate is usually 100 gallons per acre or more. Mechanical agitators are usually standard equipment, but hydraulic agitators may be used. When fitted with correct pressure unloaders, these sprayers can be used at low pressures. All hoses, valves, nozzles, and other components must be designed for high-pressure applications. High-pressure sprayers may be equipped with a hose and single handgun nozzle for use in spraying trees and animals. These sprayers also may be fitted with a boom for broadcast agricultural applications.

Advantages:

  • provide good penetration and coverage of plant surfaces,
  • usually well-built and long-lasting if properly cared for.

Limitations:

  • large amounts of water, power, and fuel needed,
  • high pressure may produce fine droplets that drift easily.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Power backpack sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Power backpack sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This backpack-type sprayer has a small gasoline-powered engine. The engine drives the pump, which forces the liquid pesticide from the tank through a hose and one or more nozzles. The engine also drives air blowers, which help propel the spray droplets. This model can generate high pressure and is best suited for low-volume applications of dilute or concentrated pesticide.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Power wheelbarrow sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Power wheelbarrow sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This sprayer, like the manually operated wheelbarrow sprayer, has a tank mounted on a wheel for easy transport. It may deliver up to 3 gallons per minute and can develop pressures up to 250 psi. The 1-1/2-to 3- horsepower engine is usually air-cooled. The tank size ranges from 12 to 18 gallons. The spray mixture may be either mechanically or hydraulically agitated.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Pressurized can (aerosol sprayer)

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Pressurized can (aerosol sprayer); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This type of sprayer consists of a sealed container of compressed gas and pesticides. The pesticide is driven through an aerosol-producing nozzle when the valve is activated. Pressurized cans usually have a capacity of less than 1 quart and are not reusable. Larger reusable cylinders are available for some specialty agricultural uses.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Push-pull hand pump sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Push-pull hand pump sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This type of sprayer depends on a hand-operated plunger that forces air out of a cylinder, creating a vacuum at the top of a siphon tube. The suction draws pesticide from a small tank and forces it out with the air flow. Capacity is usually 1 quart or less.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Small Motorized Sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Small Motorized Sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some small sprayers have all the components of larger field sprayers but usually are not self-propelled. They may be mounted on wheels so they can be pulled manually; mounted on a small trailer for pulling behind a small tractor; or skid-mounted for carrying on a small truck. They may be low-pressure or high-pressure, according to the pump and other components with which they are equipped.

Standard equipment includes a hose and an adjustable nozzle on a handgun. Some models have multi-nozzle booms. These sprayers are suitable for relatively small outdoor areas.

Advantages:

  • larger capacity than hand sprayers,
  • low- and high-pressure capability,
  • built-in hydraulic agitation,
  • small enough for limited spaces.

Limitations:

  • not suitable for general field use,


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Trigger pump sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Trigger pump sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

With trigger pump sprayers, the pesticide is not packaged under pressure. Instead, the pesticide and diluent are forced through the nozzle by pressure created when the trigger is squeezed. The capacity of trigger pump sprayers ranges from 1 pint to 1 gallon.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprayers

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These are sprayers that use special pesticide concentrates. ULV sprayers may be hand-held or mounted on either ground equipment or aircraft.

Advantage:

  • no water is needed, so less time and labor are involved.

Limitations:

  • drift hazards,
  • coverage may not be thorough,
  • high concentrates present safety hazards,
  • use of concentrated pesticides may increase chance of dosage errors,
  • few pesticides are labeled for ULV.


Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Wheelbarrow sprayer

‘‘Application Equipment, Sprayers -- Wheelbarrow sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Wheelbarrow sprayers are similar to backpack sprayers, but have a larger tank and longer hose line. The tank is mounted on a wheeled cart for easy transport. The capacity of these sprayers is usually less than 25 gallons.


Application, Personal Protective Equipment

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

By law, you must wear the personal protective equipment and other clothing that the pesticide labeling requires for applicators. Consider using additional protection for some types of pesticide application tasks. You may need to weigh several factors before you can make good decisions about the personal protective equipment you should wear.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Adjusting pesticide-coated equipment

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Adjusting pesticide-coated equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You may need to wear a protective apron while doing some types of equipment adjustments and repairs. Consider wearing a vapor-removing respirator, even outdoors, if you must adjust fumigation equipment.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Applications in enclosed spaces

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Applications in enclosed spaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides sometimes are applied in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, factories, homes, and other buildings; railcar, ship, and truck cargo areas; silos, elevators, and other grain storage areas; and greenhouses. When you use pesticides in enclosed spaces, you increase the risk of inhaling the pesticide. You may need to use a respirator even if you would not need one for the same application outdoors.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Applying concentrates

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Applying concentrates; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You may be exposed to highly concentrated pesticides during some applications. Ultra-low-volume concentrates and fumigant formulations may be close to 100-percent active ingredient and often are highly toxic. Consider using extra personal protective equipment when applying concentrates, such as that required for mixing and loading of those formulations.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Applying in air currents

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Applying in air currents; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you will be applying pesticides into or across wind or air currents, consider wearing extra personal protective equipment because pesticide may be blown onto you. More body protection, protective eyewear, and a dust/mist filtering respirator may be appropriate.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Entering a treated area

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Entering a treated area; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Even when you apply a pesticide from a vehicle, you may need to walk into an area that was just treated. For example, you may need to repair or adjust the equipment or check the pesticide dispersal. You probably will be climbing over a contaminated rig and walking through an area that was treated only moments before. Consider putting on additional personal protective equipment while you are out of the vehicle.

If the vegetation in the treated area is covered with pesticide spray or dust and is fairly short, consider shin-high or knee-high boots, or protective footwear with chemical-resistant pants. In this situation, as with walking into the path of the released pesticide, consider applying spray starch or fabric stain protector to pant legs.

If the plants in the treated area are tall, consider wearing a chemical-resistant suit in addition to the footwear. If you cannot wear a chemical-resistant suit because of the heat, try a cape or an apron.

If spray is dripping or dust is falling from overhead, consider a hood or wide-brimmed hat in addition to the body protection and footwear. A dust/mist respirator and protective eyewear may be necessary, too.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Entering

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Entering; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Many applications performed while on foot cause you to walk into the path of the pesticide you are releasing. Whenever possible, apply pesticides so that you are backing into the untreated area, away from where the pesticide is being released. However, under many conditions, it is unsafe to walk backward in an application site.

If you must walk into the path of the released pesticide, consider wearing shin-high or knee-high boots, or protective footwear with chemical-resistant pants. Spraying a thick coating of fabric starch or fabric stain protectant on the lower legs of your coveralls can provide a temporary barrier for low-toxicity pesticides and also makes the coveralls easier to clean.

When applying pesticides from a vehicle, use equipment that releases the pesticide to the rear so that you are located in front of and above the area of release and are moving away from it. Sometimes, however, you may have to use a vehicle that causes you to drive into the path of the pesticide.

Whether you are walking or riding, if the pesticide is not directed downward or if it remains suspended in the air long enough to cause exposure to the front of your body, wear an apron or chemical-resistant suit. If the pesticide mist or dust reaches as high as your face, consider a dust/mist respirator and eye protection.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Hand-carried application equipment

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Hand-carried application equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you carry the application equipment, such as hand-held sprayers or shake cans, you risk being directly exposed to the pesticide. A dripping or partially clogged nozzle, an unfastened cap, a leaky hose, or a loose connection are extremely likely to cause exposure. Consider wearing extra personal protective equipment to protect the area of your body that is in contact with the equipment.

If the application equipment is carried in front, consider wearing a sleeved apron, an apron with built-in gloves and sleeves, or an apron plus arm-covering gloves to protect your front from leaks, drift, and splashes.

If the application equipment is a type that is carried on your back, such as backpack, knapsack, or trombone-style sprayers or dusters, consider wearing a cape to protect your back and shoulders from leaking equipment.

If you carry only the nozzle, consider wearing arm-covering gloves or elbow-length gloves with the cuffs taped or otherwise sealed to the coverall sleeve.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- High-exposure applications

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- High-exposure applications; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Certain types of pesticide applications pose a special exposure risk, because they engulf you in pesticide fallout. They include:

  • mist blower or airblast applications,
  • aerosol and fog applications, especially indoors,
  • some applications using high-pressure sprayers and power dusters,
  • applications directed upward over your head, such as to tree canopies or roof eaves, or
  • aerial applications that use human flaggers to mark the swath.

Whenever you work in these situations, large amounts of pesticide fallout are likely to be deposited on your skin and clothing, often to the point of completely drenching or covering you. Unless you are in an enclosed cab, you cannot avoid this exposure, even if you perform the application during times of little or no air currents.

In these situations, you should wear more personal protective equipment than the pesticide labeling requires for other types of applications. Only a chemical-resistant suit with a hood, gloves and footwear with sealed cuffs, and a full-face respirator or half-face respirator with sealed goggles can provide enough protection for these high-exposure applications.




Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Immersing hands and forearms

‘‘Application, Personal Protective Equipment -- Immersing hands and forearms; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some application techniques, such as animal, plant, or seed dipping vats and spray-dip machines, require you to place your hands and forearms into the pesticide liquid or dust. With this exposure, consider a sleeved apron for full front and arm protection, and protective footwear. A face shield will protect against splashes or drifting dusts.




Application, Procedures

‘‘Application, Procedures; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Every time you apply a pesticide, follow these basic procedures to make sure that you are using the pesticide safely and effectively:




Application, Procedures -- Avoid nontarget organisms

‘‘Application, Procedures -- Avoid nontarget organisms; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Before you apply a pesticide, clear all unprotected people from the area. It is illegal to allow them to be exposed to a pesticide application -- either directly or through drift. Also remove any pets or livestock not being treated with the pesticide. Even when the pesticide application is narrowly directed such as a crack and crevice treatment, keep people and animals out of the immediate area during application.

Check the pesticide labeling to find out when people and nontarget animals can re-enter the treated area. The labeling of some pesticides may restrict entry into treated areas for periods ranging from several hours to several days. In general, if the pesticide labeling has no such instructions, it may be best to restrict the entry of unauthorized people into the treated areas at least until any dusts or mists have settled or sprays have dried. If necessary, provide ventilation to disperse vapors.




Application, Procedures -- Avoid nontarget surfaces

‘‘Application, Procedures -- Avoid nontarget surfaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When possible, clean the application site of any items that should not be contaminated. Cover or protect any items that cannot be removed from the area and that are not involved in the handling activity, including such things as food and food utensils; bedding; toys; seed; pet or livestock feed, water, or supplies; and other items that could transfer pesticides to people, pets, or livestock.




Application, Procedures -- Check for appearance

‘‘Application, Procedures -- Check for appearance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

As you apply, notice whether the pesticide you are releasing looks the way it should. Applications of wettable powders usually have a whitish color. If the liquid is clear, check to be sure that you are agitating the mixture enough to keep the wettable powder mixed with the water. Granules and dusts should appear dry and should not form clumps. Emulsifiable concentrates usually look milky. If the pesticide does not look right, be sure you have the right mixture and that it is blended evenly.

Check the appearance of the target area where you have just released the pesticide. If the surface is changing colors or is stained unexpectedly, stop and check whether you are harming the surface.




Application, Procedures -- Check the delivery rate

‘‘Application, Procedures -- Check the delivery rate; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Check to be sure that you are applying the pesticide evenly and in approximately the right amounts. No puddles of liquid pesticide or mounds of dry pesticide should be deposited in the application area. Be especially careful in areas where you turn or pause. Many types of application equipment continue to release pesticide even when not in motion.

When you have applied the pesticide to the first part of the area or space that is to be treated, check to be sure that approximately the correct proportion of pesticide has been used. If too little is being released, check the equipment openings for clogging or obstructions. If too much is being released, check for worn or stuck openings.




Application, Procedures -- Delivery to the target

‘‘Application, Procedures -- Delivery to the target; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Take the time to be sure that the pesticide is reaching the surface or space to which you are directing it. Pesticide deposited elsewhere is a waste of time and money and may harm nontarget areas.




Application, Procedures -- Operate equipment safely

‘‘Application, Procedures -- Operate equipment safely; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Turn off equipment whenever you pause or need to make any adjustments or repairs. When you stop application to take a break, to move to another site, or for repairs, depressurize any pressurized tanks. Turn off the main pressure valve on the tank and release any pressure remaining at the nozzles.

When applying pesticides at a distance from your equipment -- at the end of a long hose, for example -- be sure that unprotected people and pets stay away from the equipment. You may need to post a helper near it.

Check hoses, valves, nozzles, hoppers, and other equipment parts occasionally while you are applying. If you notice a problem, stop immediately and fix it. Do not use bare hands or your mouth to clear nozzles, hoses, or hopper openings. Carry a small nylon brush for such jobs. Be sure that any tool used for this kind of job is never used for any other purpose.




Applied Controls

‘‘Applied Controls; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Unfortunately, natural controls often do not control pests quickly or completely enough to prevent unacceptable injury or damage. Then other control measures must be used. Those available include:

  • host resistance,
  • biological control,
  • cultural control,
  • mechanical control,
  • sanitation, and
  • chemical control.




Applied Controls, Host resistance

‘‘Applied Controls, Host resistance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some plants, animals, and structures resist pests better than others. Some varieties of plants, wood, and animals are resistant to certain pests. Use of resistant types, when available, helps keep pest populations below harmful levels by making conditions less favorable for the pests.


Host resistance works in three ways:

  • Chemicals in the host repel the pest or prevent the pest from completing its life cycle.
  • The host is more vigorous or tolerant than other varieties and thus less likely to be seriously damaged by pest attacks.
  • The host has physical characteristics that make it more difficult to attack.




Avoiding Harmful Effects

‘‘Avoiding Harmful Effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pest control involves more than simply identifying a pest and using a control tactic. The treatment site, whether it is outdoors or indoors usually contains other living organisms (such as people, animals, and plants) and nonliving surroundings (such as air, water, structures, objects, and surfaces). All of these could be affected by pest control measures. Unless you consider the possible effects on the entire system within which the pest exists, your pest control effort could cause harm or lead to continued or new pest problems. Rely on your good judgment and, when pesticides are part of the strategy, on the pesticide labeling.

Most treatment sites are disrupted to some degree by pest control strategies. The actions of every type of organism or component sharing the site usually affect the actions and well-being of many others. When the balance is disrupted, certain organisms may be destroyed or reduced in number, and others -- sometimes the pests -- may dominate.





Biological control

‘‘Biological control; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Biological control involves the use of natural enemies -- parasites, predators, and pathogens. You can supplement this natural control by releasing more of a pest's enemies into the target area or by introducing new enemies that were not in the area before. Biological control usually is not eradication. The degree of control fluctuates. There is a time lag between pest population increase and the corresponding increase in natural controls. But, under proper conditions, sufficient control can be achieved to eliminate the threat to the plant or animal to be protected.

Biological control also includes methods by which the pest is biologically altered, as in the production and release of large numbers of sterile males and the use of pheromones or juvenile hormones.

Pheromones can be useful in monitoring pest populations. Placed in a trap, for example, they can attract the insects in a sample area so that pest numbers can be estimated. Pheromones also can be a control tool. Sometimes a manufactured copy of the pheromone that a female insect uses to attract males can be used to confuse males and prevent mating, resulting in lower numbers of pests. Applying juvenile hormones to an area can reduce pest numbers by keeping some immature pests from becoming normal, reproducing adults.




Biological controls -- Alternatives to pesticides

‘‘Biological controls -- Alternatives to pesticides; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Biological controls use living organisms (natural enemies) to suppress populations of other pests.

Examples are:

  • Predators are free-living animals (most often other insects or arthropods, but also birds,

reptiles, and mammals)that eat other animals (the prey).

  • Parasitoids are insect (or related arthropods) parasites of other insects (or other arthropods). Most parasitoids are tiny wasps and flies. They differ zoologically from true parasites (fleas, lice, or intestinal tapeworms) primarily in that parasitoids kill their host whereas parasites may weaken, but seldom kill the host.
  • Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms. including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and ematodes.




Brand name

‘‘Brand name; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Each manufacturer has a brand name for each product. Different manufacturers may use different brand names for the same pesticide active ingredient. Most companies register each brand name as a trademark and do not allow any other company to use that name. The brand or trade name is the one used in advertisements and by company salespeople. The brand name shows up plainly on the front panel of the label.

Pesticide handlers must beware of choosing a pesticide product by brand name alone. Many companies use the same basic name with only minor variations to designate entirely different pesticide chemicals. For example:

  • DePesto = carbaryl
  • DePesto Super = parathion and methomyl
  • DePesto Supreme = carbaryl, parathion, and methomyl

Sometimes several companies will sell the same pesticide product under different brand names. For example:

  • De Weed 2E = diquat 2 lbs per gallon EC formulated by Company X
  • No Weeds = diquat 2 lbs per gallon EC formulated by Company Z.

Always read the ingredient statement to determine the active ingredients in a product.




Calculating Dilutions and Site Size

‘‘Calculating Dilutions and Site Size; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘


Applying the correct amount of pesticide is a "must" for responsible, effective pest control. The pesticide label and other recommendations tell you how much to apply. It is your job to:

  • dilute the formulation correctly,
  • accurately calculate the size of the application site, if necessary, and
  • calibrate your application equipment accurately.

This unit, plus the unit on equipment calibration, should help you have a basic understanding of how to be sure you are applying the right amount.


CALIBRATING AIRPLANES AND HELICOPTERS

‘‘CALIBRATING AIRPLANES AND HELICOPTERS; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This equipment is highly specialized and should be calibrated according to equipment manufacturer's instructions or with guidance from Extension Service or other professional personnel. The basic volume output method can also be used for this equipment:

1. Fill the tank or hopper to a known level.

2. Apply water (or another nonpesticide test material designed for this purpose) over a known area (acre or part of an acre).

3. Measure quantity needed to refill tank or hopper.

4. Figure rate per acre.


CALIBRATING AQUATIC APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

‘‘CALIBRATING AQUATIC APPLICATION EQUIPMENT; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Aquatic application equipment should be calibrated according to the equipment manufacturer's instructions or with guidance from Extension Service or other professional personnel. The volume output method can be successfully used for aquatic equipment, but you must figure whether to base the rate on:

  • water surface area to be treated,
  • bottom surface area to be treated, or
  • total volume of water to be treated.

Then proceed to:

1. Fill tank or hopper to known level.

2. Apply water or another nonpesticide test material to a specific area (acres of surface or bottom area or acre-feet of volume).

3. Measure quantity needed to refill tank or hopper.

4. Figure output per area treated (acres or acre-feet).



CALIBRATING DUST APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

‘‘CALIBRATING DUST APPLICATION EQUIPMENT; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To calibrate dusters for use in ground application, follow the directions given above for calibrating granular application equipment.


CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS

‘‘CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

There are many types of granular application equipment. Gravity-feed applicators may have one long hopper with a sliding gate or auger that regulates the flow to the multiple outlets. The granules drop straight down to the target surface from the outlets, so the swath width is equal to the width of the hopper. Other equipment uses an air blast or whirling disks to distribute the granules in swaths much wider than the machines. To determine the swath width, measure the actual swath on a hard surface.

Band applicators usually are a modification of the gravity-feed equipment. Granules drop through tubes and are released just above the soil to form bands of a specific width. For band applicators, the swath width is the number of bands multiplied by the band width in feet.

Soil injectors are band applicators that release the granules into furrows, which are then covered. Ram-air equipment (agricultural aircraft) uses a combination of air flow and gravity to deliver the granules to the target site.

In all types of granular equipment, the amount of granules applied per unit of area depends on the size of the adjustable opening, the speed at which the equipment travels (or the speed of the hopper agitator), the roughness of the surface of the application site (except for aerial application), and the granular formulation chosen.

Different formulations have different flow rates depending on the size, weight, shape, and texture of the granules. Environmental factors such as temperature and humidity also alter granular flow rates. (The flow rate slows as temperature and humidity rise.)

Because so many variables can affect the delivery rate, calibrate your equipment for each batch of product and for each new field condition.

Granular equipment that has wheel-driven dispersal delivers granules at a rate geared to the turns of the hopper agitator, which is in turn geared to the revolutions of the ground wheels. The faster the equipment is moved, the faster the release of granules. As a result, minor changes in equipment speed do not affect the amount of granules deposited per unit area. The only way to change the application rate in this type of equipment is by changing the feed gate settings.

Granular equipment with powered dispersal or gravity-flow dispersal distributes the granules at a constant rate independent of the speed of the equipment. The application rate per acre (or other unit area) depends on both the metered opening and the equipment speed. Minor adjustments in flow rates can be made by altering the rate of speed. (Faster speed means fewer granules delivered per area). Make larger adjustments by altering the equipment settings.

Consult the equipment manual for manufacturer's recommended settings to deliver approximate rates of the granules being applied. If the equipment is motorized, select the speed by using manufacturer's suggestions and taking into consideration the condition of the application site. Soft, muddy, or uneven surfaces and small areas with many obstacles require slower speeds.

Calibrate your equipment using one of the two methods described below. If the application rate differs more than 5 percent from the desired rate, adjust the equipment and recalibrate.


CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators

‘‘CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Run a precalibration check on the equipment:

  • First, fill the hopper to a predetermined height or weight. Settle the material by driving a short distance or by shaking or striking the hopper; then refill the hopper.
  • Set the flow rate as recommended by the equipment manual.
  • Turn on the applicator and operate on a hard surface to check for uniform distribution along the swath width. If you cover the surface with a tarp before making the test run, you can collect the granules for reuse.

Next, operate the equipment over a measured area to determine whether the equipment is metering granules at the rate per acre you need. You may use either of two methods:

  • the calibration pan method,
  • the volume output method.


CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators, Calibration pan method

‘‘CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators, Calibration pan method; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Multiple-outlet broadcast spreaders, band applicators, and soil injection equipment often can be calibrated by collecting the granules in calibration pans graduated in ounces. If the application rate is given in pounds per 1,000 linear feet of row:

  • Mark off 1,000 feet in the field you wish to treat.
  • Collect the granules discharged from one tube or opening during the 1,000-foot test run. If the equipment is motorized, bring it up to the speed you have selected before beginning the test run.

OR

  • Make the test run at the speed you have selected, but do not operate the applicator. Note the time (in seconds) it takes to complete the test run. Then with the equipment standing still, collect the granules discharged for that measured time.
  • The amount of granules collected (in ounces or pounds) is the rate per 1,000 linear feet. (If you wish to use only a 100-foot test run, the amount of granules collected multiplied by 10 is the rate per 1,000 linear feet.)


CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators, Volume output method

‘‘CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators, Volume output method; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The volume output method of calibration can be done in one of two ways:

(1) Treat an acre at the speed and setting recommended by the equipment manual. To determine the rate of application, catch the granules in calibration pans or measure the amount of granules needed to refill the hopper.

OR

(2) Treat less than an acre. Stake out a test area in the field to be treated. The total test run should be at least 1,000 feet.

  • Treat the test area at the speed and setting you have chosen.
  • Catch the granules in a pan, or refill the hopper and measure the amount added.
  • Calculate the rate of application:

Swath width X distance in test run (in ft.) / Square feet in an acre (43,560) = Area (in acres) treated in test

Pounds used in test run / Area (in acres) treated in test run = Pounds per acre

Example:

  • Swath width = 15 feet.
  • Test run = 1,000 feet.
  • Amount used in test run = 5 pounds.
  • Amount needed per acre = 15 pounds.

Swath width (15 ft.) X test run (1,000 ft.) / 43,560 sq. ft. = Area treated (0.34 acre)

Pounds in test run (5) / Area treated (0.34) = Pounds per acre (14.7)

That is within 5 percent of the specified rate of 15 pounds per acre, so the equipment is correctly calibrated.


CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators, Band granular applicators

‘‘CALIBRATING GRANULAR APPLICATORS -- Broadcast granular applicators, Band granular applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Use the methods described above to calibrate band applicators. However, if the labeling directions give the rate in pounds per acre broadcast, you must use the following formula to determine the rate per acre in bands (just as in band spray applications):

Band width X Pounds per acre (broadcast) / Row spacing = Pounds per acre (band) applied

Example:

  • Labeling rate = 12 pounds per acre (broadcast).
  • Band width = 6 inches.
  • Row spacing = 30 inches.

Band width (6 in) X 12 pounds per acre (broadcast) / Row spacing (30") = 2.4 pounds per acre (band) applied

If the labeling directions list pounds to apply per 1,000 linear feet, you must use this formula to determine your rate:

Total pounds used in test run / Number of rows in swath = Pounds used per row in test run

Pounds used per row in test run X 1,000 ft. / Distance traveled in test run = Pounds per 1,000 linear feet

Example:

  • Number of bands or rows covered in test run = 8.
  • Distance traveled in test = 3,000 feet.
  • Pounds used in test = 2.3.

Pounds used in test (2.3) / Number of rows (8) = Pounds used per row in test run (.288)

Pounds used per row (.288) X 1,000 ft. / Distance traveled in test run (3,000 ft.) = Pounds per 1,000 linear ft. (.096 or 1.5 oz.)


CALIBRATING SOIL FUMIGATION EQUIPMENT

‘‘CALIBRATING SOIL FUMIGATION EQUIPMENT; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Soil fumigation equipment can be calibrated by using the volume output method described for sprayers. Use the following formulas:

Test area sprayed = Swath width X distance in test run / Square feet in an acre (43,560)

Gallons per acre = Gallons used in test run / Area (in acres) sprayed in test run

For band applications, the swath width is the band width (in inches) multiplied by the number of bands. Divide by 12 to find the swath width in feet.

Use the following formula if soil fumigant rates are listed as ounces per 100 (or 1,000) linear feet traveled:

Total ounces used in test run / Number of rows in swath = Ounces used per row in test run

Ounces used per row in test run X 100 (or 1,000) feet / Distance traveled in test run = Ounces per 100 (1,000) feet

Soil fumigant rates are sometimes listed as feet traveled per pint of fumigant delivered. Then:

  • With the system pressurized, keep the unit stationary and operate the pump or pressure system at the equipment manual's suggested setting.
  • Measure how long (in seconds) it takes to collect 1 pint of fumigant from the orifice.
  • Determine how fast you need to travel:

Feet per pint specified on labeling / Collection time for one pint = Speed (feet per second)

Speed (feet per second) / 1.45 (conversion factor) = Miles per hour

If the speed is too fast or slow for your ground conditions and equipment, change settings and recalibrate.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To calibrate spray equipment, you must determine:

  • the appropriate pump pressure,
  • the spray volume to be delivered,
  • the type of diluent to be used (usually water).


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Airblast sprayers

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Airblast sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Airblast sprayers use large quantities of air and smaller quantities of water to deliver the pesticide to the target. Some sprayers (especially those of small capacity) spray to only one side at a time and so may require two passes per row. Other sprayers direct the spray to both sides and require only one pass between each crop row.

Airblast sprayers usually require a nozzle arrangement that permits a greater percentage of spray to be discharged from the upper half of the manifold. Usual recommendations are to select nozzle tips so that two-thirds (67 percent) of total spray volume discharged is from the top half. For most airblast applications that are broadcast, the nozzles should be selected to direct the largest part of the spray into the upper half of the airstream.

Follow the steps below to determine how many nozzles will be needed to provide coverage of the crop you will be spraying:

1. First, determine the number of nozzles you will be using on each manifold. This number depends on the type of equipment you will be using and the size, shape, and density of crop you will be spraying. The following examples will help you arrange nozzles on your sprayer manifold.

Two-side delivery in high trees with low branches:

o upper vanes raised,

o upper nozzles opened,

o lower nozzles opened.

Two-side delivery in medium trees with low branches:

o external vanes pointed at tree top,

o upper nozzles closed to prevent deflection by external vanes,

o lower nozzles opened.

Two-side delivery in medium trees, pruned high:

o external vanes pointed at tree top,

o upper nozzles closed as required to prevent deflection by external vanes,

o lower nozzles closed.

One-side delivery for high trees or overly dense foliage:

o cover closed on the side that will not be used,

o external vane aimed at tree top,

o upper nozzles closed as required to prevent deflection by external vane,

o lower nozzles closed as required, depending upon height of lower branches.

Two-side delivery -- young orchard or grove with widely spaced rows:

o external vanes lowered in full down position,

o upper nozzles closed, as required,

o lower nozzles closed, as required.

2. Divide the desired gallons per minute (gpm) by the number of manifolds your equipment has. Some equipment has one manifold per side; other equipment has two manifolds per side.

3. Divide the number of nozzles you will be using on each manifold by 2. This allows you to determine the discharge rate for the upper half and lower half of the manifold separately. If your equipment has nozzles unevenly spaced along the manifold, consult your equipment manufacturer's information for the number and placement of nozzles directing spray to the upper half of the tree. Normally the bottom 2, 3, or 4 nozzles cover the lower part of the tree.

4. Multiply the discharge rate per manifold (in gpm) by 0.67 to find the discharge rate for the nozzles in the upper section of each manifold (since 67 percent of the spray should be discharged to the upper half of the tree).

5. Multiply the discharge rate per manifold (in gpm) by 0.33 to find the discharge rate for the nozzles in the lower section of each manifold.

6. Divide the gpm for the upper section of the manifold by the number of nozzles in that section to find the gpm you need for each nozzle.

7. Divide the gpm for the lower section of the manifold by the number of nozzles in that section to find the gpm you need for each nozzle.

8. Use nozzle manufacturer's charts to select the appropriate nozzles.

9. Check the total capacity of your nozzle arrangement by using the following formula:

(Number of nozzles in upper section X Capacity per nozzle) + (Number of nozzles in lower section X Capacity per nozzle) = Total capacity per manifold.

Total capacity per manifold X Number of manifolds = Discharge rate in gpm

Compare this rate with the desired discharge rate.

Example:

Your equipment has the capacity to apply 14 gpm spraying two sides at 200 psi with one manifold per side. You need eight nozzles operating on each manifold for best coverage of the trees.

[Total discharge rate (14)] / Number of manifolds (2) = Discharge rate per manifold (7 gpm)

[Number of nozzles per manifold (8)] / 2 = Number of nozzles in upper (or lower) section (4)

Discharge rate per manifold (7 gpm) X 0.67 = 4.7 gpm for upper portion

Discharge rate per manifold (7 gpm) X 0.33 = 2.3 gpm for lower portion

[Gpm for upper section (4.7)] / Nozzles in section (4) = 1.2 gpm per nozzle in upper section

[Gpm for lower section (2.3)] / Nozzles in section (4) = 0.6 gpm per nozzle in lower section

The airblast nozzle chart (Table 9) indicates that you can choose nozzles 156-B (1.18 gpm) or 141-A (1.23 gpm) for the upper portion. You probably would select 156-B, because it delivers larger droplets, provides longer throw, and yields a narrower spray pattern than the 141-A (a five-hole core or whirler). The nozzle charts also indicate that you can choose either nozzles 139-A (0.55 gpm) or 153-B (0.62 gpm) for the lower portion of the manifold. You probably would select the 153-B, because it delivers a wider angle that will better cover the lower parts of the tree.

Check the total capacity of your nozzle arrangement:

Number of nozzles in upper section (4) X Capacity per nozzle (1.18) = 4. 7 gpm for upper section

Number of nozzles in lower section (4) X Capacity per nozzle (0.62) = 2.5 gpm for lower section

4.7 + 2.5 = Total capacity per manifold (7. 2 gpm)

Capacity per manifold (7.2) X Number of manifolds (2) = 14.4 gpm

This is slightly more than the 14 gpm you need. You may compensate by driving slightly faster.

Note: The exact gpm you are seeking will rarely be on the chart. Try to choose nozzles closest to the gpm you need. For the upper portion, choose a size that delivers slightly more than you need. Then compensate by choosing slightly lower capacity nozzles for the lower portion, or vice versa.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Boom sprayers deliver the pesticide solution from several nozzles placed along a long pipe or other structure called a boom. The spacing between the nozzles is determined by the row spacing (in band or directed applications) and by individual preferences.

Common nozzle spacings are 20, 30, or 40 inches apart along the boom. Nozzle manufacturers often include a factor for spacing into their charts. If the nozzle spacing on your boom is different from those listed on the charts, you must use a conversion factor. Multiply the gallons per acre figure on the nozzle chart by the appropriate factor from Table 3.

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Example:

A nozzle selection chart based on 20-inch nozzle spacing shows that the tips you are using would apply 6 gallons per acre. The nozzles are spaced at 16 inches:

6 gpa X 1.25 (conversion factor from Table 3) = 7.5 gpa

The height of the boom above the soil surface (or above the plants in over-the-top applications) influences the type of nozzle tips you choose for broadcast applications and for some band applications. In directed spraying, the boom height is not a factor in nozzle selection because the nozzles can be positioned to direct the spray at specific parts of the plant.

Boom height is determined by the equipment you have chosen and by crop height or obstacles that may have to be cleared.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers, Band

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers, Band; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Band spraying is application of a pesticide to a strip over or along a crop row. Choosing nozzles for a band sprayer is very similar to choosing them for a broadcast sprayer. However, if the labeling lists the spray volume in terms of broadcast spraying, you must first convert that figure to the band rate. Use the formula discussed in the section on "Spray Volume":

Band width X Broadcast rate / Row Spacing = Gpa needed for band spraying

Before you select the nozzles for your band sprayer, you must know:

  • the boom height (the height of the boom above the surface will determine
  • the nozzle angle needed to achieve the desired band width),
  • row spacing (same as nozzle spacing on boom),
  • pump pressure,
  • sprayer speed,
  • spray volume per acre (band rate),
  • the desired band width.

Example:

  • Row spacing = 40 inches.
  • Pump pressure = 30 psi.
  • Sprayer speed = 5 mph.
  • Spray volume for band application = 5 gpa.
  • Boom height = 6 inches.
  • Band width = 10 inches.

To select a nozzle tip, use Table 5, which is for nozzles spaced at 40- inch intervals. Using the "5 mph" column, look at the gpa output of each nozzle at 30 psi until you find the 5 gpa you need. You will find that the tip numbered 103 with 50-mesh strainers will deliver 5.1 gpa.

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To select the correct nozzle angle, use Table 6. It indicates that since you have chosen a 6-inch boom height and need to achieve a 10-inch band width, an 80degree; fan angle (with the number 103 nozzle tip) is needed.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers, Broadcast

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers, Broadcast; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Broadcast boom spraying is the uniform application of a pesticide over an entire area. To select nozzles for a broadcast boom sprayer, you must know:

  • approximate boom height,
  • nozzle spacing on the boom,
  • pump pressure,
  • sprayer speed,
  • gallons of spray to be applied per acre.

Example:

  • Boom height = 22 inches.
  • Nozzle spacing = 20 inches.
  • Pump pressure = 30 psi.
  • Sprayer speed = 4 mph.
  • Spray volume = 10 gpa.

Table 4 shows that:

  • The 65degree; series will accommodate a 22-inch boom height.
  • The 20-inch nozzle spacing is factored into the chart.
  • Any of the nozzle tips listed will operate at 30 psi.
  • The 4 mph tractor speed narrows the choice to nozzle tip number 502, which delivers 9.7 gpa. The chart requires a 100-mesh strainer for that nozzle.

Note that other nozzle tips could be used if you changed the speed and the pump pressure. However, it is usually more economical to purchase tips that allow you to operate your equipment at its optimum pressure and speed.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers, Directed

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boom sprayers, Directed; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘


Directed spraying is aiming a pesticide at a specific portion of a plant. Choosing nozzles for directed spraying is very similar to choosing them for broadcast treatments, except that the number of nozzles per row and the spacing of the rows become the variables. Nozzle manufacturers usually supply special charts for selecting nozzles for directed spraying. You must know:

  • row spacing,
  • number of nozzles to be used per row,
  • pump pressure,
  • sprayer speed,
  • spray volume per acre.

Example:

  • Row spacing = 30 inches.
  • There are two nozzles per row.
  • Pump pressure = 80 psi.
  • Sprayer speed = 4 mph.
  • Spray volume = 15 gpa.

Using Table 7, you should choose nozzle tip number 3-23.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boomless sprayers

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Boomless sprayers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Boomless sprayers have either a single nozzle or a multiple-tip cluster that produces a swath-like spray pattern. The spray delivery is similar to that laid down by a boom sprayer.

Choosing tips for the cluster nozzles is similar to choosing them for a boom sprayer. You must determine the spray volume per acre you wish to apply. You also must choose the operating pressure and speed at which your sprayer performs best. Then use the charts in the nozzle manufacturer's catalogs to select the nozzle tips and spraying height that best fit your needs. The number of tips and the spraying height determine the width of the swath you will be spraying with each pass. You will have several nozzles from which to choose. Base your decision on:

  • approximate swath width you wish to use (open field indicates wider swath; area with obstacles such as trees or buildings requires a narrower swath),
  • drift hazard (higher spray heights and greater swath widths increase drift),
  • single- versus double-side spraying.

Remember, the double tips will deliver twice the swath width and twice the output capacity in gallons per minute as single tips. However, at any given speed, the gallons per acre delivered by double tips is approximately the same as gallons delivered by single tips.

Example:

You want to apply 15 gallons per acre. Your sprayer works best at 5 mph and 40 psi. Table 8 indicates that tip C-4 will deliver 14.7 gpa at that speed and pressure. If the nozzle is set at a 36-inch spray height, the effective swath width is 27 feet. There are separate charts available for several different spray heights, which will allow you to choose from several nozzles, depending on the requirements of your job.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Nozzle Tips and Strainers

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Nozzle Tips and Strainers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Nozzle manufacturers help applicators choose the right tip for each job by providing detailed charts of tip performance. You can match the specific needs of the job to information on the chart to decide what tips and strainers to use.

The charts include the factors you must consider in order to choose the right nozzles -- pressure, equipment speed, and spray volume. In general, nozzle selection is based on the gallons per minute (gpm) the nozzles produce. If the chart shows spray volume in terms of both gallons per minute and gallons per acre (gpa), you can choose nozzles without further figuring. Some manufacturers, however, list only gallons per minute. The following formula converts from gallons per acre to gallons per minute:

(Gallons per acre X miles per hour (mph) X W) / 5,940 (conversion factor) = Gallons per minute (per nozzle)

(In boom spraying, W = nozzle spacing, in inches. In boomless spraying, W = sprayed width, in inches.)

Example:

(10 gpa X 4 mph X 20" nozzle spacing) / 5,940 = 0.13 gpm

The nozzle charts that accompany this unit are typical of those that manufacturers commonly distribute, but the nozzles named are not actual products.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Pump pressure

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Pump pressure; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pump pressure is controlled by the type of equipment -- particularly the type of pump -- you have chosen. Each pump is designed to provide a range of optimum pressures. To protect the pump and to ensure steady pressure output, do not operate it at pressures above or below its optimum range. Within the optimum pressure range, you can determine which specific pressure to use by considering such factors as:

  • drift hazard (lower pressure produces less drift),
  • penetration required (penetration of foliage, animal hairs, soil surfaces, and other barriers requires higher pressure),
  • recommendations on the pesticide labeling or from other sources.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Spray volume

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Spray volume; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The amount of spray volume needed for effective application is often listed in the labeling (or other recommendations). The spray volume is the amount of diluted pesticide mixture to be applied per unit of area. The recommendation may be for a specific volume, such as 20 gallons per acre or 2 1/2 gallons per 1,000 square feet.

In other cases, a wide range of acceptable volumes may be listed; for example, "up to 400 gallons per acre," or "15 to 40 gallons per acre." Choose the spray volume most appropriate for your spray job. Base the choice on your experience with the equipment and such factors as:

  • the size of the spray tank,
  • the availability and cost of water or other label-specified diluent,
  • the surface to be treated (dense foliage, animal hairs, and porous surfaces require more volume).

Whatever spray volume you use, remember that you need to calculate the dilution carefully to be sure you are delivering the correct amount of pesticide active ingredient to the target.

Spray volume recommendations usually are given in terms of broadcast spraying. The band rate also may be included. If not, you will have to determine the appropriate rate for band spraying. Divide the band width by the row spacing to determine what proportion of the field area is actually being sprayed. Then multiply by the broadcast rate per acre to determine the gallons per acre (gpa) needed for band spraying.

( Band width X Broadcast rate) / Row Spacing = Gpa needed for band spraying

Example:

[Band width (10 in.) X Broadcast rate (20 gpa)] / Row Spacing (40 in.) = Gpa when band- applied(5)


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Spray-gun nozzles

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Spray-gun nozzles; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Gun spraying usually is done by hand and is intended to wet surfaces thoroughly with spray material. To choose an appropriate spray gun nozzle, you must know the approximate operating pressure of your sprayer. Some guns are designed for a wide range of pressures (from 30 to 800 psi, for example), but others are built for narrower ranges (up to 200 psi or from 200 to 800 psi, for example). The other variables are the spray angle each nozzle delivers at various pressure settings and the maximum throw of each nozzle at different pressures. You must decide which nozzle delivers spray at the appropriate angle and throw distances for your particular application job. Choose the tip according to the gallons per minute your sprayer will deliver and the pressure necessary to do the job. Nozzle capacities range from 0.25 gpm to 50 gpm at 30 to 800 psi, with throw distances of up to 60 feet.



CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Type of diluent

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS -- Type of diluent; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The diluent for most spray applications is water. However, your situation may require the use of another diluent. The pesticide labeling usually recommends the diluent to be used with that product. You must know what diluent you will use before you can select the appropriate nozzles for the job.

Because most selection charts provided by nozzle manufacturers are based on spraying with water, the figures will not be correct if you are using another diluent. A table such as the one below is often provided to help you adjust the figures to fit your situation.

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Multiply the values on the nozzle charts by the conversion factor from the table to determine the correct value for the solution being sprayed.

Example:

You have determined that you would be applying 6 gallons per acre if water were the diluent. The solution you are using, which is not water-based, weighs 16 pounds per gallon:

6 gpa X .72 (conversion factor from Table 2) = 4.32 gpa.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The first step in calibration is to check two important factors related to the nozzles:

  • pressure at the nozzles,
  • nozzle flow rates.

Unless these two factors match the figures on the manufacturer's charts, your equipment will not deliver the specified amount of pesticide.

The nozzle selection charts are based on pressure at the nozzles. To check nozzle pressure, mount a pressure gauge close to the nozzles. Then compare that reading with the pressure reading at the main line pressure gauge. (After the test, remove the pressure gauge near the nozzles and plug the connection.)

Even new nozzles may deliver rates that vary from the manufacturer's charts; variance in delivery rates can result in underdosing or overdosing. You can check nozzle flow rates by measuring the length of time needed to collect a quart of diluent from each nozzle. Using Table 10, you can convert this information to gallons per minute.

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Next, you must test your equipment at the application site to determine whether it is delivering the pesticide at the desired rate. Several methods for testing various types of spray equipment are explained below. If you find that the equipment is not delivering at a rate that is within 5 percent of the desired gpm or gpa, you must make adjustments and do another test. Minor adjustments in gallons per acre or gallons per minute can be made in one of three ways:

  • Changing the pump pressure -- Lower pressure means less spray delivered; higher pressure means more spray delivered. (Only minor adjustments should be made, because a large pressure change will change the droplet size significantly.)
  • Changing the sprayer speed -- Slower speed means more spray delivered; faster speed means less spray delivered. This is a practical method for most small changes.
  • Changing nozzle tips -- This is the preferred method for large changes in delivery rate.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Since airblast sprayers are often used to apply a highly concentrated spray mixture, you must take great care in calibrating the sprayer. With dilute mixtures, a variation of 3 gallons per minute in spray output has little effect on the amount of active ingredient delivered; however, with more concentrated sprays, the same variation can cause an application rate error of 10-fold or more.

The most common error in airblast sprayer operation is traveling at the wrong speed. A travel rate that is too slow will result in overspraying and the waste of time, fuel, money, and pesticide. Too fast a travel rate will result in inadequate spray coverage, resulting in poor pest control.

Most airblast applications operate best at a maximum speed of 2 mph. In cases of very dense foliage or large trees, select a lower speed (from 3/4 to 1 1/2 mph). Increased speed reduces the coverage to the tops and centers of trees, even though the liquid delivered per tree or per acre is otherwise adequate.

To determine the optimum ground speed, fill the tank with water and make a test run in the area to be treated. Vary the rate of speed until the spray material is being blown through the trees in the desired pattern. In orchard, nursery, and forestry spraying, the spray must be blown completely through the trees. Field crop, mosquito, and similar applications require uniform penetration across the swath width.

To determine sprayer speed in mph, measure the feet traveled in 1 minute and divide by 88. If the distance between trees is constant, you can count the number of trees passed in 1 minute and use this formula to compute speed:

Tree spacing (tree center to tree center in feet) X No. of trees passed per minute] / 88 feet per minute (conversion factor) = Ground speed in mph


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast Sprayer, Discharge Rate

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast Sprayer, Discharge Rate; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Choosing the spray volume (discharge rate)

Airblast sprayers can deliver highly concentrated chemicals. They can carry the same amount of pesticide to the target that other types of equipment do, while using much less water. The amount of chemical per tankful is 3, 5, or even 10 times the amount used with hydraulic sprayers, but only 1/3 to 1/10 as many gallons of total spray volume (water and pesticide) are applied. The amount of active ingredient that reaches the target should be the same as with other methods.

Sometimes the labeling or other sources specify the concentration necessary for airblast equipment (3X, 5X, 10X, etc.). Many times, however, the applicator must choose the concentration to apply. Consider these factors in making your choice:

  • The savings in water and labor are greatest when converting from dilute to 5X or 10X concentrates. Over 10X, the savings are negligible.
  • High-concentrate applications (over 5X) require extreme accuracy and ideal spraying conditions. Very small changes in rate of speed or nozzle output are magnified by the concentrations of the tank mixture.

Labeling and other recommendations often list spray volume in terms of:

  • pints, quarts, gallons, or pounds of spray mixture per tree (dilute or concentrated),
  • pints, quarts, gallons, or pounds of spray mixture per acre (dilute or concentrated),
  • gallons or pounds per acre of dilute spray (as applied by other equipment).

Depending on the requirements of your job, you may need to convert these spray volume recommendations in order to determine the correct discharge rate (in gallons per minute) for your air blast sprayer. Use the following formulas:


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer, Discharge Rate Method 1

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer, Discharge Rate Method 1; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

When spray volume is given as gallons or pounds per tree in concentrate and trees are closely spaced so that continuous spraying is feasible:

  • Determine the gallons of spray to apply to each tree in each pass. Since you spray the tree from both sides:

Recommended rate per tree per pass (or side) = Recommended rate per tree / 2 passes (sides) per tree

Rate per pass = 1/2 the recommended rate

  • Determine the gpm you need for your sprayer to deliver the desired rate per tree per pass. At the rate of speed you have selected, determine the number of trees passed per minute (by counting or by using the following formula):

Trees passed per minute = Mph X 88 ft. per minute / Tree spacing in feet

If your sprayer sprays on one side only, then:

Gpm = Trees passed per minute X Spray volume in gallons per tree per pass

If your sprayer sprays on two sides:

Gpm = Trees passed per minute X 2 X Spray volume in gallons per tree per pass

Example:

  • The labeling calls for 2 pints spray concentrate per tree (2 pints = 1/4 or .25 gallons).
  • Your spray equipment covers the tree thoroughly at 3 mph and sprays to one side only.
  • The trees are spaced at 20-foot centers.

Recommended rate per tree in gallons (0.25) / Passes per tree (2) = Gallons per tree per pass (0.125)

[Mph (3) X 88 ft/min] / tree spacing (20 ft.) = Trees passed per minute (13.2)

Trees passed per minute (13.2) X Spray volume in gallons (0.125) = 1.65 gpm


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer, Discharge Rate Method 2

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer, Discharge Rate Method 2; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

When spray volume is gallons per tree in concentrate, spaces exist between trees, and the airblast sprayer will be used to spot spray each tree:

  • Determine the gallons of spray to apply for each side of each tree (as above).
  • Find the time (in minutes) you require to pump the needed number of gallons into each side of each tree using the nozzles on your sprayer. First, fill the tank with water. (If you use less than a full tank, be sure to note the water level so you can refill to the same point later.) Bring blower and pump up to speed and run for 5 minutes. Measure the amount of water needed to refill the tank to the original level.

Gpm = Gallons pumped in test / Minutes in test

If your sprayer delivers large volumes (15 or more gallons) per minute, reduce the test time to 1 or 2 minutes.

  • Determine the number of minutes you need to spray each side of the tree:

Minutes per side of tree = Gallons per side / Gallons per minute

Example:

  • The labeling calls for 3 gallons of concentrate spray per 50-foot elm tree.
  • Your sprayer pumps 50 gallons in 5 minutes.

3 gallons / 2 sides = 1.5 gallons per side of tree

Gallons pumped in test (50) / Minutes in test (5) = gpm (10)

Gallons per side (1.5) / Gallons per minute (10) = 0.15 minutes (9 seconds) per side


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer, Discharge Rate Method 3

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Airblast sprayer, Discharge Rate Method 3; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

When the recommended spray volume is listed as pounds or gallons of dilute spray per acre:

You must convert the volume of dilute spray to volume of concentrate spray. There are two methods:

  • volume of concentrate per tree,
  • volume of concentrate per acre (the only choice when you will be spraying field crops, turf, or other nontree areas).

To convert recommendations for volume of dilute spray per acre to volume of concentrate per tree:

  • Determine the gallons of dilute spray that conventional hydraulic sprayers would apply to each tree. Charts are available to guide you, or your experience with hydraulic equipment may help you to make the determination.
  • Calculate the application rate per tree.

Gallons per tree (dilute) / Concentration to be used (?X) = Gallons per tree (concentrate)

  • Because the tree is sprayed on two sides, figure the gallons to be applied to each side of the tree (gallons per pass).

Gallons (concentrate) per tree / Passes per tree (2) = Gallons per pass (concentrate)

  • Determine the rate of speed that is best for your equipment.
  • Determine the gpm needed.

For a sprayer directing spray to one side:

[Mph X 88 ft/min X gallons per pass per tree] / Tree spacing = gpm

For a sprayer directing spray to two sides:

[2 X mph X 88 ft/min X gallons per pass per tree] / Tree spacing = gpm

Example:

  • Labeling directions call for 1 pound per 100 gallons.
  • Dilute spray volume = 12 gallons per tree.
  • Concentration = 5X.
  • Sprayer speed = 2 mph.
  • Sprayer sprays to two sides.
  • Tree spacing = 30 feet between centers.

Gallons per tree (dilute) (12) / Concentration (5) = 2.4 gallons per tree

Gallons per tree (2.4) / Number of passes (2) = 1.2 gallons per pass

[2 X mph (2) X 88 X 1.2 gal/pass] / Tree spacing (30 ft.) = 14 gpm

To convert recommendations for volume of dilute spray per acre to volume of concentrate per acre (for tree spraying):

  • Find gallons per acre (concentrate) you must apply:

Gallons per acre (concentrate) = Gallons per acre (dilute) / Concentrate rate to be used

  • Then determine gpm:

For sprayers applying to one side only:

Gpm = [Gallons per acre X mph X tree spacing (ft.)] / 1,000 (conversion factor)

For sprayers applying to two sides:

Gpm = [2 X gallons per acre X mph X tree spacing (ft.)] / 1,000 (conversion factor)

Example:

You have calculated that 1,760 gallons of dilute spray would be needed per acre, but you wish to apply a 4X concentration. Your sprayer covers evenly at 2 mph and is spraying to two sides. The trees are spaced on 24-foot centers.

[Gallons per acre dilute (1,760)] / Concentration (4X) = 440 gpa

[2 X gpa (440) X mph (2) X tree spacing (24)] / 1,000 = 42.2 gpm

To convert recommendations for volume of dilute spray per acre to volume of concentrate per acre (for field, crop, turf, and other nontree spraying):

  • Determine the swath width -- follow equipment manufacturer's recommendations and consider the field conditions (wind speed and direction).
  • Determine gallons (concentrate) to be applied per acre.

Gallons per acre (concentrate) = Gallons per acre (dilute) \ Concentrate rate

  • Determine gpm.

Gpm = [Gallons per acre X mph X 88 ft/min X swath width] / 43,560

Example:

o Labeling directions call for 200 gallons per acre dilute spray.

o Sprayer speed = 2.5 mph.

o Concentration = 6X.

o Swath width = 90 feet.

Gpa dilute (200) / Concentration (6) = 33.3 gpa (concentrate)

[Gpa conc. (33.3) X mph (2.5) X 88 ft/min X swath width (90)] / 43,560 = 15 gpm



CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom sprayer

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Install the nozzle tips in the nozzle bodies on the boom using the spacing and boom height appropriate for the nozzle tips. Align them carefully. Misalignment of nozzle tips is a common cause of uneven coverage. Do not use nozzles of different sizes and spray angles on the same boom except in special multiple-nozzle arrangements designed for directed spraying. Check the boom to be sure it is level. If it is not, the spray pattern will be uneven.

Nozzle manufacturers usually recommend a 30-percent spray pattern overlap in broadcast boom spraying. The height of the boom alters the percentage of overlap of the spray pattern, so use the boom height recommended by the manufacturer. At that height, the spray angle built into the nozzles provides approximately the correct overlap.

In band spraying, the boom height influences the width of the band the nozzle is delivering. Make adjustments in the boom height to achieve the desired band width with the angle of nozzle you have chosen.

Fill the spray tank with the diluent you will be using and run the pump to pressurize the system. Operate the sprayer briefly on a paved surface such as a road or driveway, if possible, and check for:

  • correct broadcast overlap or band pattern,
  • streaks and uneven patterns caused by worn or partly plugged nozzles.

Make any necessary adjustments and then refill the tank. The next step is to choose a calibration method. There are many different ways to calibrate sprayers. Here are two basic methods:


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Nozzle output method:

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Nozzle output method:; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

1. Using Table 11 below, select the appropriate distance and mark it off in the field or area you will be spraying. For broadcast applications, use the nozzle spacing to determine the calibration distance. For band or directed applications, use the row spacing.

2. Using the throttle setting and gear you wish to use, bring the sprayer up to speed. With the spraying system shut down, drive the measured distance and note the time in seconds that it takes.

3. With the equipment in neutral, operate the spray system for the measured time and collect the nozzle discharge in a container graduated in ounces. For a broadcast boom with evenly spaced nozzles, catch the output from any nozzle along the boom. If more than one nozzle per row is used, catch the spray from all nozzles directed at a single row.

4. The total discharge measured in ounces is equal to gallons per acre (gpa) applied. With either broadcast boom or band sprayer, the gpa is equal to the output from one nozzle. When more than one nozzle is used per row, the combined amount collected from all nozzles directed at the row is equal to the gpa.

Example (Broadcast or Band Application):

The pressure you have selected is 30 psi. The nozzles are spaced 20 inches apart on the boom.

1. The distance to mark off for 20-inch nozzle spacing is 204 feet.

2. Select the gear and throttle setting, bring the sprayer up to speed, and measure the time needed to cover 204 feet.

3. If it required 20 seconds to travel the 204 feet, set the pressure at 30 psi and catch one nozzle's output for 20 seconds.

4. Measure the amount collected. The output in ounces is the amount applied in gallons per acre. If the nozzle output is 15 ounces, the sprayer applied 15 gallons per acre.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each nozzle.

Example (Directed Spray):

You want to spray a 32-inch row, using two nozzles per row (one on each side). The pressure to be used is 20 psi.

1. The distance to travel for a 32-inch row is 127 feet.

2. Select speed and drive the 127 feet. Measure the time in seconds.

3. If it took 15 seconds, set the pressure at 20 psi and catch the output from one pair of nozzles for 15 seconds.

4. Measure the quantity from the two tips. The amount measured in ounces represents the gallons per acre applied. If each tip delivers 5 ounces (a total of 10 for the pair), the sprayer output is 10 gallons per acre.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each pair of nozzles on the boom.

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CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Volume output method

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Volume output method; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sometimes it is not practical to catch the flow from individual nozzles. Another method of calibration is to measure the volume of spray dispersed from the tank over a measured area. Your test area can be either one acre or part of an acre. Be sure to compare flow rate from individual nozzles along the boom before using this method.

First, you must determine the sprayed width for your boom sprayer.

The sprayed width for broadcast spraying is the distance (in feet) between the first and last nozzles on the boom, plus the distance (in feet) between adjacent nozzles.

Example:

  • Nozzle spacing is 24 inches (2 feet).
  • Distance between the first and last nozzles on the boom is 18 feet.
  • 18 feet + 2 feet = a 20-foot sprayed width.

--- The sprayed width for band spraying is equal to the number of bands (nozzles) multiplied by the band width (in inches). Divide by 12 to convert to sprayed width in feet.

Example:

  • Number of bands = 9.
  • Band width = 10 inches.

Number of bands (9) X band width (10") = Sprayed width in inches (90")

90 inches / 12 = sprayed width in feet (7.5)

The sprayed width for directed spraying is equal to the number of rows sprayed multiplied by the row spacing (in inches). Divide by 12 to convert to sprayed width in feet.

Example:

  • Number of rows = 7.
  • Row spacing = 40 inches.

Number of rows (7) X Row spacing (40") = Sprayed width in inches (280") 280 inches / 12 = Sprayed width in feet (23.3)


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Spray-an-acre method

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Spray-an-acre method; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

One type of volume output calibration involves spraying an entire acre:

1. Completely fill the tank with water.

2. Mark off one acre in the field to be sprayed. Use this formula to figure the distance you need to drive to cover one acre: Distance to drive for one acre = 43,560 / sprayed width (in feet)

3. Spray the measured acre at the speed and pressure appropriate for the nozzles you have selected.

4. Completely refill the spray tank, using a container marked off in gallons. Carefully measure the quantity you add. The amount needed to completely refill the tank is the rate applied per acre.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Spraying less than one acre

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boom Sprayer, Spraying less than one acre; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Another way to calibrate by the volume output method is to spray an area smaller than an acre:

1. Stake out a test area in the field to be sprayed. The distance should be at least 1,000 feet.

2. Fill the spray tank with water.

3. Spray the measured area using the pressure and speed appropriate for the nozzles. Be sure the sprayer is at the correct speed when you reach the test strip.

4. Refill the tank to the initial level, carefully measuring the quantity you add.

5. Calculate the rate of application. The method of calculation depends on whether you are making a broadcast application or a band application.

To figure the gallons per acre for broadcast spraying, first

find the area sprayed in the test run:

(Sprayed width X distance in test run) / Square feet in one acre (43,560) = Area sprayed (in acres)

--- Then find the gallons per acre being sprayed:

Gallons used in test run / Area (in acres) sprayed in test run = Gallons per acre

Example:

  • Sprayed width = 20 feet.
  • Distance in test run = 1,000 feet.
  • Gallons used in test run = 8.
  • Spray volume desired = 18 gpa.

[Sprayed width (20 ft.) X test run (1,000 ft.)] / 43,560 sq. ft. = Area sprayed (0.46 acre)

Gallons used (8) / Area sprayed (0.46) = 17.4 gpa

Since the target rate was 18 gpa, and 5 percent more or less than the recommended rate is acceptable, the equipment is correctly calibrated.

To figure the gallons per acre for band application, find area sprayed in the bands of the test area:

[Sprayed width (band width X no. of bands) X length of test run / Square feet in one acre (43,560)] = Area sprayed in bands (in acres)

Find gallons per acre being sprayed in the bands:

[Gallons used in test run] / [Area sprayed in bands (in acres)] = Gallons per acre

When you calculate the spray volume desired for the job, remember to convert from broadcast rate to band rate, if necessary:

(Band width X Broadcast rate) / Row Spacing = Gpa needed for band spraying

Example:

  • Sprayed width = 7.5 ft. (nine 10-inch bands).
  • Distance in test run = 1,000 ft.
  • Gallons used in test run = 1.8
  • Spray volume desired = 9 gpa (band rate)

[Sprayed width (7.5 ft.) X length of test run (1,000 ft.)] / 43,560 = Area sprayed in bands (0.17 acre)

Gallons used (1.8) / Area sprayed in bands (0.17) = Gallons per acre (10.6)

This is more than 5 percent greater than the 9 gallons per acre you wish to spray, so you must make adjustments and do another test.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boomless sprayer

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- Boomless sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Calibrate boomless sprayers using the volume output method. Use either the "spray an acre" or "spray part of an acre" technique to measure boomless sprayer output. The sprayed width is the effective swath width your sprayer produces with the nozzle tips and spray height you have chosen. Nozzle selection charts often specify the effective swath width produced by the nozzles at a given height. An overlap percentage may also be recommended.

If you need to measure the effective swath width, spray water on a dry surface under calm conditions at the operating pressure and nozzle height you have chosen. Measure the sprayed width (in feet). The portion that is completely wet is the effective swath width. The width of the area on the fringe that is not completely wetted is the area you need to overlap on the next pass for complete coverage. Boomless sprayers often require 50-percent overlap.


CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- High-pressure (hydraulic) sprayer

‘‘CALIBRATING SPRAYERS, Application Site Calibration -- High-pressure (hydraulic) sprayer; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

High-pressure sprayers sometimes are equipped with booms. Even when a high-pressure sprayer is boomless, it may have nozzles that spray a swath. When used in this way, a high- pressure sprayer is calibrated in the same way as a low-pressure boom or boomless sprayer.

High-pressure sprayers also may be equipped with spray guns for treating livestock, orchards, nurseries, roadsides, or rights-of-way. Once the appropriate spray gun tip has been chosen and the flow rate has been checked, no further calibration is necessary.


Calibration

‘‘Calibration; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Calibration is the process of measuring and adjusting the amount of pesticide your equipment will apply to the target area. Equipment that must be calibrated includes mechanical dusters; granule spreaders; hand, backpack, boom, handgun, high- pressure, airblast, and most other sprayers; and fumigant applicators.

The many types of application equipment differ in the details of their operation, but you can apply the basic principles of calibration in any situation.

To calibrate accurately, you must be familiar with the operation of your machinery. Follow the manufacturer's directions carefully -- they explain how to adjust the equipment. The directions often contain suggestions about such things as the appropriate rate of travel, the range of most efficient pump pressures, approximate settings for achieving various delivery rates, and types of nozzles that can be used.

Pesticide application equipment will not deliver the right amount of pesticide to the target site if it is not working correctly. Before you begin to calibrate the equipment, check it carefully to be sure that all components are clean and in good working order. Pay particular attention to the parts that regulate the amount of pesticide being released, such as nozzles or hopper openings. If they become clogged, not enough pesticide will be released. If they become worn, too much pesticide may be released.

Calibration does not have to be difficult. Pesticide labeling and Extension Service and professional association recommendations give you much of the information you need in order to calibrate correctly. Calibration requires some simple mathematics; this unit provides some standard formulas to help you.

It is not necessary to memorize the formulas. Instead, make a list of the ones you will need in your work (including the steps to solution) and keep it handy. Review the formula each time you calibrate, just as you refer to the pesticide label each time you use a pesticide. As you work through the formula, use a calculator to reduce the chances of making an error.

The methods described in this unit are not the only ways to calibrate equipment. Your Extension Service can give you information about other equally acceptable methods.


Calibration, Methods

‘‘Calibration, Methods; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

No matter what calibration method you use, you will be measuring how much pesticide is being applied in a specific area. Calibration usually requires you to operate the equipment over a pre-measured distance.

It is best to use something other than the actual pesticide when you make test applications during calibration. This is not always possible, because the rate of application depends partly on the properties of the pesticide -- such as droplet size, weight, and texture. If the pesticide is a liquid formulation diluted with water, you can use water alone in the test. If the pesticide is a dust, granule, or fumigant, or a liquid diluted with a liquid other than water, you usually must use the actual pesticide in the test.

With some kinds of equipment, the rate of application depends also on the pressure and on the nozzle size or hopper opening. The equipment manufacturer's directions and pesticide label directions can provide guidelines for these selections.


Calibration, Methods -- Check Calibration Often

‘‘Calibration, Methods -- Check Calibration Often; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Once you have calibrated your equipment, do not assume that it will continue to deliver the same rate during all future applications. Clogging, corrosion, and wear may change the delivery rate, or the settings may gradually get out of adjustment. Taking the time to check the calibration of your equipment regularly is worth your while.

Be alert for possible calibration problems each time you use your application equipment. During the application, notice whether you are treating the same amount of area per load that you figured. If you find that you are covering more or less area than your figures indicated, stop application and check both your calculations and the equipment. If you have figured wrong or if your application equipment changes its delivery rate, you will be able to correct the mistake before you have a major problem.


Calibration, Methods -- Figure the Application Rate

‘‘Calibration, Methods -- Figure the Application Rate; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The amount of pesticide applied, divided by the area covered, is the application rate. Sometimes no calculations are needed. If, for example, the label lists the application rate as "per acre" or "per 1,000 linear feet" and you measure the output for exactly 1 acre or exactly 1,000 linear feet, no calculations are necessary because the amount of output you measured is the total amount required.

However, you may not have the time to test your equipment over such a large site. Or, if you are using the actual pesticide in the test, you may not want to risk applying it over a large site without knowing the application rate. Under these conditions, you can test smaller sites and then calculate the application rate.


Calibration, Methods -- Larger equipment, larger target sites

‘‘Calibration, Methods -- Larger equipment, larger target sites; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If you are using application equipment that carries a larger load (more than a few gallons of liquid or a few pounds of dry pesticide) or if the target site is relatively large (greater than an acre or 1,000 linear feet), choose a larger test site. If the test site for these types of equipment or sites is too small, measurements are likely to be inaccurate. Operating a boom or other multi-nozzle or multi-hopper equipment over a site as small as 10 feet by 25 feet, for example, would not allow you to carry or drive the equipment far enough to gauge average speed accurately.

If label directions tell you the amount to apply per 1,000 square feet or per acre, use a test site of at least 1,000 square feet (a 20- by 50-foot rectangle, for example). The output you measure during the test will be the actual application rate for the 1,000 square feet. To find the rate per acre, multiply the test output by 43.56, which is the number of square feet in an acre (43,560) divided by 1,000.


Calibration, Methods -- Small equipment, small target sites

‘‘Calibration, Methods -- Small equipment, small target sites; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If you are using application equipment that carries a relatively small load (up to a few gallons of liquid or a few pounds of dry pesticide) or if the target site is relatively small (less than an acre or 1,000 linear feet), you can choose a test site that is small.

If the use directions are for 100 linear feet, you might choose a test site of 25 linear feet. If the directions are for 1,000 square feet or for an acre, you might choose a test site of 250 square feet (a 10- by 25-foot rectangle). Measure the amount applied in this smaller site and then multiply to find the rate:

  • The amount applied to 25 linear feet, multiplied by 4, equals the rate per 100 linear feet.
  • The amount applied to 250 square feet, multiplied by 4, equals the rate per 1,000 square feet.
  • The amount applied to 250 square feet, multiplied by 175, equals the rate per acre.


Calibration, Methods -- Test Application

‘‘Calibration, Methods -- Test Application; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To find out how much pesticide your equipment is applying, make a test run. One way to determine how much was applied during the test run is to:

  • Accurately measure the amount in the tank or hopper at the start.
  • Operate the equipment over the pre-measured distance while maintaining your chosen speed (if speed affects the delivery rate of the equipment you are using).
  • Accurately measure the amount needed to refill the tank or hopper to the pre-application level.
  • Another way to determine how much was applied during the test run is to:
  • Attach collection containers to the nozzles or hoppers.
  • Operate the equipment over the pre-measured distance while maintaining your chosen speed (if speed affects the delivery rate of the equipment you are using).
  • Measure the amount of material collected. If the equipment has multiple nozzles or hoppers, add together the output of all the collection containers.


Calibration, Precision

‘‘Calibration, Precision; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Be? When you measure nozzle output, calculate application rate, or do other calibration-related calculations, the acceptable variation is plus or minus 5 percent. For example, if actual measured nozzle output is within 5 percent of the target, or if the actual application rate is within 5 percent of the recommended rate, those results can be considered accurate for calibration purposes.

How do you determine whether your results fall within the acceptable range? If the target number is 15, for example, multiply that by 5 percent (.05). Add the result to 15 to find the largest acceptable number; subtract it from 15 to find the lowest acceptable number:

15 x .05 = .75

15 + .75 = 15.75 (5% more than 15)

15 - .75 = 14.25 (5% less than 15)

Therefore, anything between 14.25 and 15.75 is within the acceptable range.


Calibration, Speed

‘‘Calibration, Speed; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

For some types of application equipment, the speed at which the equipment moves (or is carried) through the target site is one of the main factors in determining the rate of application. For some other types of equipment, you do not need to consider speed when calibrating.


Calibration, Speed -- Equipment With Gravity-flow Dispersal

‘‘Calibration, Speed -- Equipment With Gravity-flow Dispersal; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some equipment, such as some granule applicators, use gravity to achieve the flow of pesticide. For hand-operated granule applicators, an adjustable opening at the base of the hopper allows granules to flow onto a disk that rotates when turned by a hand crank. To maintain even distribution of the granules, the operator must turn the crank at an even rate while walking at a steady pace. Calibration is achieved by adjusting the hopper opening and the walking rate.

For machine-mounted gravity-flow applicators, an adjustable opening at the base of each hopper allows the granule to flow into the furrow or band or onto a spinning disk. To calibrate this equipment correctly, you must adjust the flow rate by altering the hopper opening, and you must also establish a precise, even ground speed. If the wheels slip, too much pesticide will be applied in the areas where the slippage occurs. Wheel slippage is especially likely on uneven ground, on wet surfaces, and when the equipment is heavily loaded.


Calibration, Speed -- Equipment With Ground-Wheel-Driven Dispersal

‘‘Calibration, Speed -- Equipment With Ground-Wheel-Driven Dispersal; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the equipment you have chosen uses the rotation of the equipment's wheels to maintain the flow of pesticide, calibration may be fairly simple. Some of this equipment, such as some granule spreaders, needs to be calibrated only to adjust the rate of flow or delivery. This equipment releases pesticide only when the wheels are in motion. If the speed of the equipment is kept at an even, moderate pace, the amount of pesticide being released per unit area will be uniform. As with gravity- flow applicators, wheel slippage will cause too much pesticide to be applied in the areas where the slippage occurs.


Calibration, Speed -- Equipment With Powered Dispersal

‘‘Calibration, Speed -- Equipment With Powered Dispersal; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If your equipment has a pump, blower, auger, or other mechanism to disperse the pesticide, you will need to determine the rate of speed best suited for the type of equipment and for the particular requirements of your application job. Such equipment may be either hand-carried or mounted on a vehicle.

In either case, the speed at which the equipment moves through the target site determines the amount of pesticide applied in a given area. Keep the speed as constant as possible both during the calibration process and during the actual application.

For accurate calibration, operate the equipment at the target site or on ground (or other surface) similar to that at the target site. Whether the equipment is hand- carried or mounted on a vehicle, the condition of the ground (surface) that must be crossed is important. A rough and uneven surface generally causes the equipment to be operated at a slower speed.

The equipment manufacturer's directions may offer a range of appropriate speeds. Your knowledge of conditions in the target site (including the drift hazard), plus your experience with the equipment, will help you determine an appropriate speed.


Calibration, Speed -- Measuring Actual Speed

‘‘Calibration, Speed -- Measuring Actual Speed; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To calibrate accurately, you must know your actual speed. Due to wheel slippage under field conditions, the actual ground speed will differ from the speed indicated by a speedometer.

To measure actual speed, mark off measured distances of 100, 200, or 300 feet in the field where the application is to be done. Then run the equipment over this distance at the operating speed, carefully marking the throttle setting or speedometer reading and recording run times. Be sure the equipment is moving at full operating speed before you reach the starting point. Make at least three runs; use the average time to do your calculations.

Table 1 converts the time measured to speed in miles per hour.


Calibration, Uniform Release

‘‘Calibration, Uniform Release; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the application equipment you will be using has more than one nozzle (or more than 1 cluster of nozzles) or hopper, part of the calibration process is to measure the output from each to be sure that they all are releasing the correct amount of pesticide. Check whether the pesticide output from one or more nozzles (or cluster of nozzles) or hoppers is 5 percent more or less than the amount desired. Check for clogging or other obstruction in the openings that are distributing less. Check for leaks or worn parts in the openings that are distributing more. If you find no correctable problem, replace the nozzles or hoppers. You can check for uniform output in the following two ways. Either method requires that you use containers (jars) to collect the output from each nozzle, nozzle cluster, or hopper.

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  • Operate the equipment for a set period of time (1 to 5 minutes) and compare the amount of output in each jar to the amount desired, or
  • Operate the equipment over a measured area while calibrating the equipment and, at the end of the calibration run, compare the amount of output in each jar to the amount desired.

If all the nozzles or hoppers are intended to release an equal amount of pesticide, just check whether all the containers contain the same amount.


Certified Pesticide Applicators

‘‘Certified Pesticide Applicators; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Only a certified pesticide applicator may use or supervise the use of restricted-use pesticides. Under federal law, there are two types of certified pesticide applicators -- private applicators and commercial applicators.

Private applicators use or supervise the use of restricted-use pesticides to produce an agricultural commodity on property owned or rented by themselves or their employer, or on the property of another person with whom they trade services.

Commercial applicators use or supervise the use of restricted-use pesticides on any property or for any purpose other than that listed for private applicators.

Certification requires training or testing for competency in the safe and effective handling and use of restricted-use pesticides. Your state, tribal, or federal agency will conduct training and/or testing for certification and may impose stricter standards than those required by federal law. Many such agencies have agreements to allow certification by one to be accepted by others nearby.




Chemical control

‘‘Chemical control; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy pests, control their activity, or prevent them from causing damage. Some pesticides either attract or repel pests. Chemicals that regulate plant growth or remove foliage also are classified as pesticides. Pesticides are generally the fastest way to control pests. In many instances, they are the only tactic available.




Classification of Pesticide Uses

‘‘Classification of Pesticide Uses; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

EPA categorizes every use of every pesticide as either "unclassified" or "restricted use." Often all uses of a particular formulation are classified as restricted or all are unclassified. Sometimes, however, certain uses of a formulation are restricted and other uses of the same product are not. In these cases, the directions for use for the two classifications must be clearly separate. Entirely different packaging and labeling are used.




Cultural control

‘‘Cultural control; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Cultural practices sometimes are used to reduce the numbers of pests that are attacking cultivated plants. These practices alter the environment, the condition of the host plant, or the behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation. They disrupt the normal relationship between the pest and the host plant and make the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce. Common cultural practices include rotating crops, cultivating the soil, varying time of planting or harvesting, planting trap crops, adjusting row width, and pruning, thinning, and fertilizing cultivated plants.




Cultural methods -- Alternatives to pesticides

‘‘Cultural methods -- Alternatives to pesticides; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Cultural methods are those good farming (or good horticultural) practices that either control pests mechanically or break their infestation cycle by making the living and nonliving environment less suitable for pest survival by:

  • Tillage operations that disrupt weeds
  • Mowing
  • Vacuuming
  • Burning
  • Reducing the overall favorableness of the habitat (by destroying pest over-wintering sites and other infestation sources both in the crop field and alternate hosts or habitats)
  • Altering planting patterns to disrupt or interrupt in time and space the food or other habitat resources required by the pest
  • Diverting mobile pests from the crop
  • Enhancing the vigor of the crop so that it can better tolerate pest injury

Examples of cultural controls used in IPM programs include:

  • Crop rotation
  • Tillage operations that turn the soil and bury crop debris
  • Altering planting and harvest dates
  • Altering seeding rates and crop spacing
  • Seedbed preparation, fertilizer application, and irrigation schedules that maintain plant vigor and help plants outgrow pests
  • Sanitation practices, such as cleaning tillage and harvesting equipment
  • Certified seed that is free of pathogens and weed seed
  • Cover crops
  • Trap crops
  • Pest-resistant varieties that can tolerate pest injury, be less attractive to pests, or control pests by producing chemicals that are toxic to them



Delayed effects statements

‘‘Delayed effects statements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The labeling of pesticides that the EPA considers to have the potential to cause delayed effects must warn you of that fact. These statements will tell you whether the product has been shown to cause problems such as tumors or reproductive problems in laboratory animals.




Diluting

‘‘Diluting; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Unless you have the correct amount of pesticide in your tank mix, even a correctly calibrated sprayer can apply the wrong amount of pesticide to the target. Formulations such as wettable and soluble powders, emulsifiable concentrates, and flowables usually are sold as concentrates and must be diluted in the spray tank. Water is the most common diluent, but kerosene, oil, and other liquids are sometimes used. Consult the labeling or other recommendations to find out what diluent to use and how much the formulation should be diluted.

You usually will need to do some simple calculations based on the capacity of your sprayer, how your equipment is calibrated, how much area you want to treat, and the recommended application rate. This unit gives you the formulas you need to figure dilutions in most ordinary situations, and it includes examples of how the formulas can be used.

But don't rely totally on the formulas plus your pencil or calculator -- use your common sense, too. It is easy to make a mistake in calculation, so it is a good idea to always make a rough estimate of what you would expect the amount to be. Then you will be better able to judge whether the results of your calculations are reasonable. Many of the "hints" that accompany the examples in this unit are designed to help you make these kinds of estimates.


Diluting, Airblast Sprayer or Mist Blower Concentrate Mixtures

‘‘Diluting, Airblast Sprayer or Mist Blower Concentrate Mixtures; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Spray mixtures used in an airblast sprayer or mist blower usually are 2, 3, 4, 5, or 10 times more concentrated than those used in boom or hydraulic sprayers. If no recommended rate is listed for airblast or mist applications, simply figure the dilution as you would for a boom or hydraulic sprayer and then multiply the last answer by the concentration factor (2X, 3X, 4X, 5X, or 10X).

The unit on Calibration has additional information on choosing an appropriate concentration and adjusting the equipment to apply it correctly.

Pounds/gallons of form. per tank X Concentration factor = Pounds/gallons form. per tank in concentrate form

Example:

The label lists the rate as 4 pounds formulation per 100 gallons of water for dilute application. Your airblast sprayer tank holds 600 gallons. You want to apply a 5X concentration.


Gal. per tank (600) X Lbs. per 100 gallons recommended (4)


= Lbs. needed in tank for hydraulic sprayer (24)
                         100 gallons


(600 X 4) / 100 = 24

Pounds formulation per tank for hydraulic sprayer (24) X Concentration wanted (5X) = Pounds of formulation to add to airblast tank (120)

24 pounds X 5 = 120 pounds


Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Percent of active ingredient in tank

‘‘Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Percent of active ingredient in tank; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the recommended rate is a percentage of active ingredient in the tank, another formula is necessary. First find the number of gallons of spray in the spray tank (either the tank capacity or gallons needed for job if less than tank capacity). Then:


Gallons in tank X % a.i. wanted X Weight of carrier (lbs. per gal.)


= Pounds formulation to add to tank
                     % a.i. in formulation


Example:

Your directions call for a spray containing 1.25 percent active ingredient. You need to mix 4 gallons of spray for the job. The pesticide is a 60 percent SP and you will use water as the diluent. How much formulation do you need to add to the tank?

HINT: Your product has 60 percent a.i. and your spray mixture is to be much less, only 1.25 percent. You will need to add only a small amount of formulation per gallon.


Gallons in tank (4) X Percent a.i. needed (1.25) X Weight of water/gal (8.3)


= Pounds form. needed in tank
         % a.i. in formulation (60)


(4 X 1.25 X 8.3) / 60 = .69 lbs. of formulation needed in tank

.69 pounds X 16 ounces per pound = 11 ounces of formulation needed in tank


Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds of active ingredient per acre

‘‘Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds of active ingredient per acre; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the recommended rate is given as pounds of active ingredient (a.i.) per acre, you must first convert that figure to pounds of formulation per acre. Use the following formula:


Pounds of a.i. per acre X 100


= Pounds formulation per acre

Percent of a.i. in formulation


Then follow the formulas listed above under the heading "Pounds of formulation per acre" to find the pounds of formulation to add to your tank.

Example:

You want to apply 2 pounds of active ingredient per acre. Your formulation is 80 percent WP. How much formulation do you need per acre?

HINT: Your formulation is less than 100 percent, so you will need a little more than 2 pounds of formulation.


Pounds of a.i. per acre (2) X 100


= Pounds formulation per acre
 % a.i. in formulation (80%)


(2 X 100) / 80 = 2.5 pounds of formulation per acre


Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds of formulation per 1,000 square feet

‘‘Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds of formulation per 1,000 square feet; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the application rate is listed as pounds or ounces of formulation per 1,000 square feet, use the following formula:


 Amount in tank X Rate per 1,000 square feet

= Amount formulation needed in tank

Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet


Example:

Your sprayer tank holds 3 gallons and applies 2 quarts of spray per 1,000 square feet. The labeling directions indicate a rate of 4 ounces of formulation per 1,000 square feet. How much formulation do you need to make a tankful of spray?

HINT: Your sprayer holds 3 gallons, which is equal to 12 quarts. Also be aware that 16 ounces equals 1 pound.


Amount in tank (3 gallons = 12 quarts) X rate per 1,000 square feet (4 oz.)


= Amount form. needed in tank
   Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet (2 quarts)


(12 X 4) / 2 = 24 oz

24 oz. / 16 oz. per pound = 1.5 pounds needed in tank


Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds of formulation per acre

‘‘Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds of formulation per acre; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The label may list the recommended rate in terms of pounds of pesticide formulation per acre.

If the job requires a full tank, you must know how many gallons your equipment applies per acre and the spray tank capacity. Use these formulas:


  Gallons in tank

= Acres sprayed per tankful

Gallons applied per acre


Acres sprayed per tank X Pounds formulation per acre = Pounds formulation needed in tank

Example:

Your sprayer applies 15 gallons per acre and your tank holds 400 gallons. The labeling rate is 3 pounds of formulation per acre. How much formulation should you add to the tank to make a full tank load?

HINT: 400 gallons is much more than 15 gallons, so you will be able to spray many acres with a tankful and will need to add many pounds of formulation to the tank.


Gallons in tank (400)


= Acres sprayed per tankful

Gallons per acre (15)


400 / 15 = 26.7 acres sprayed per tankful

Acres sprayed per tankful (26.7) X Pounds formulation per acre (3) = Pounds needed in tank

26.7 X 3 = 80.1 pounds needed in tank

Add 80.1 pounds of pesticide formulation to the tank.

If the job requires less than a full tank, you must know how many acres you want to treat and how many gallons your sprayer is delivering per acre. You must figure both the number of gallons needed in the tank and the pounds of formulation to add. Use these formulas:

Gallons per acre X Acres to be treated = Gallons needed in tank

Acres to be treated X Pounds formulation per acre = Pounds formulation needed in tank

Example:

You want to spray 3 1/2 acres. Your equipment holds up to 100 gallons and delivers 15 gallons per acre. The labeling rate is 3 pounds per acre. How much water do you need to add to the tank? How much pesticide should you add to the tank?

Gallons per acre (15) X Acres to be treated (3 1/2) = Gallons needed in tank

15 X 3.5 = 52.5 gallons of water needed in the tank

Acres to be treated (3 1/2) X Pounds formulation per acre (3) = Pounds formulation needed in tank

3.5 X 3 = 10.5 pounds formulation needed in tank



Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds per 100 gallons

‘‘Diluting, Dry Formulations -- Pounds per 100 gallons; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Directions for dry formulations, such as wettable or soluble powders, may be given in pounds of pesticide formulation per 100 gallons of diluent. You must know how many gallons your sprayer tank holds (or the number of gallons you will be adding to the tank if the job requires only a partial tank load). Then use the following formula:


Gallons in tank X lbs. per 100 gal. recommended


= Pounds needed in tank
                    100 gallons


Example:

Your spray tank holds 500 gallons. The labeling calls for 2 pounds of formulation per 100 gallons of water. How many pounds of formulation should you add to the tank to make a full tank load?

HINT: 100 gallons is 5 times less than your tank holds, so you will need 5 times more than 2 pounds of formulation.


Gallons in tank (500) X lbs. per 100 gallons (2)


= Pounds needed in tank
                100 gallons


(500 X 2) / 100 = 10 pounds needed in tank

Example:

You need to spray only 1 acre, and your equipment is calibrated to spray 60 gallons per acre. The labeling calls for 2 pounds of formulation per 100 gallons of water. How much formulation should you add to the tank to make 60 gallons of finished spray?

HINT: 60 gallons is slightly more than half of 100 gallons, so you will need slightly more than 1 pound (1/2 of the recommended 2 pounds) of formulation.


Gallons in tank (60) X pounds per 100 gallons (2)


= Amt. needed in tank
                100 gallons


(60 X 2) / 100 = 1.2 pounds needed in tank

1.2 pounds X 16 ounces per pound = 19.2 ounces needed in tank


Diluting, Feet and Acres Convertion

‘‘Diluting, Feet and Acres Convertion; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the application rate is given in pounds, pints, quarts, or gallons per 1,000 square feet, and you have calibrated your equipment in terms of acres, you must convert the 1,000-square-foot rate to the rate per acre:


43,560 (sq. ft. in acre)


= 43.5
    1,000 sq. ft.


Amt. form. per 1,000 sq. ft. X 43.5 = Amt. formulation to apply per acre

Or you may have calibrated your equipment in terms of 1,000 or 100 square feet when the application rate is given in pounds, pints, quarts, or gallons per acre. To convert from the rate per acre to the rate per 1,000 square feet (or 100 square feet):


Amt. form. recommended per acre


= Amt. form. per 1,000 sq. ft. (or 100 sq. ft.)
   43.5 (435 for 100 sq. ft.)





Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Percentage of active ingredient in tank

‘‘Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Percentage of active ingredient in tank; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the recommended rate is a percentage of active ingredient in the tank, use this formula:


Gallons in tank X  % a.i. wanted X Weight of water (8.3 pounds per gallon)


= Gallons of formulation to add
      Pounds a.i. per gallon of formulation X 100


Example:

You want to make 100 gallons of a 1 percent spray, using water as the diluent. You have a 2 EC formulation (pesticide label tells you that this is 2 pounds active ingredient per gallon). How many gallons of the 2 EC should you add to the 100 gallons of water in the tank?


Gallons in tank (100) X  % a.i. wanted (1%) X Weight of water (8.3)


= Gallons of formulation to add
   Pounds a.i. per gallon of formulation (2) X 100


(100 X 1 X 8.3) / (2 X 100) = 4.15 gals. of formulation to add to tank



Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pints/quarts of formulation per 1,000 square feet

‘‘Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pints/quarts of formulation per 1,000 square feet; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If the application rate is listed as pints or quarts of formulation per 1,000 square feet, use the following formula:


Amount in tank X Rate per 1,000 square feet

= Amount formulation needed in tank

Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet


Example:

Your sprayer tank holds 10 gallons and applies 1 1/2 quarts of spray per 1,000 square feet. The labeling directions indicate a rate of 5 tablespoons per 1,000 square feet. How much formulation do you need to make a tankful of spray?

HINT: Your sprayer holds 10 gallons, which is 40 quarts, and 64 tablespoons = 1 quart.


Amount in tank (10 gallons = 40 quarts) X Rate per 1,000 square feet (5 Tbsp)


= Amount needed in tank
   Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet (1.5 quarts)


(40 X 5) / 1.5 = 133 Tbsp

133 Tbsp / 64 Tbsp per quart = 2 quarts plus 5 Tbsp (2.08 quarts) needed in the tank


Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pints/quarts/gallons of formulation per acre

‘‘Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pints/quarts/gallons of formulation per acre; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Use these formulas:


  Gallons in tank

= Acres sprayed per tankful

Gallons applied per acre


Acres sprayed per tank X Amt. formulation per acre = Amt. formulation needed in tank

Example:

Your sprayer applies 22 gallons per acre and your tank holds 400 gallons. The labeling rate is 1 1/2 quarts per acre. How much pesticide formulation should you add to make up a full tank?

HINT: 22 gallons per acre will treat just under 5 acres with 100 gallons, so 400 gallons will treat just under 20 acres. Therefore, your answer should be less than 20 acres X 1 1/2 quarts per acre, or less than 30 quarts.


Gallons in tank (400)


= Acres sprayed per tankful

Gallons per acre (22)


400 / 22 = 18.2 acres sprayed per tankful

Acres per tankful (18.2) X Amount of form. per acre (1.5 qts) = Amount form. needed in tank (27.3 qts.)

18.2 X 1.5 = 27.3 quarts (27 quarts plus 9.6 ounces) per acre

(1 qt. = 32 oz.; 32 oz. X .3 = 9.6 oz.)


Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pints/quarts/gallons per 100 gallons

‘‘Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pints/quarts/gallons per 100 gallons; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Use the following formula:


Gallons in tank X Amt. per 100 gal. recommended


= Amt. formulation needed in tank
                    100 gallons


Example:

The labeling rate is 2 pints of pesticide formulation per 100 gallons of water. Your spray tank holds 30 gallons. How much pesticide formulation do you need to add to the tank?

HINT: Since your tank holds about 1/3 of the 100 gallons, you will need about 1/3 of the 2 pints per 100 gallon rate.


Gallons in tank (30) X Pints per 100 gal. (2)


= Pints formulation needed in tank
                100 gallons


(30 X 2) / 100 = .6 pints of formulation needed in tank

.6 pints X 16 ounces per pint = 9.6 ounces of formulation needed in tank


Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pounds of active ingredient per acre

‘‘Diluting, Liquid Formulations -- Pounds of active ingredient per acre; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The recommendation for the liquid formulation may be listed as pounds of active ingredient per acre. You must first calculate how many gallons of formulation would be needed per acre to achieve that rate. The label of a liquid formulation always tells exactly how many pounds of active ingredient are in a gallon of the concentrated formulation (4 EC has approximately 4 pounds of active ingredient per gallon; 6 EC contains approximately 6 pounds per gallon, etc.). Use the following formula:


 Pounds a.i. to apply per acre

= Gallons of formulation per acre

Pounds a.i. per gallon formulation


Then use the formulas above under "pints/quarts/gallons per acre" to figure the dilution.

Example:

The recommendation is for 1 pound of active ingredient per acre. You purchased an 8 EC that contains 8 pounds of active ingredient per gallon. Your tank holds 500 gallons and is calibrated to apply 25 gallons per acre. How many acres per tankful can you treat? How much formulation would you need for a full tank?


Pounds a.i. to apply per acre (1)


= Amount per acre
 Pounds a.i. per gallon (8)


1 / 8 = .125 (1/8) Gallons per acre


Gallons in tank (500)


= Acres per tankful

Gallons per acre (25)


500 / 25 = 20 acres per tankful

Acres per tankful (20) X Gallons per acre (1/8 or .125) = Gallons to add to tank

20 X .125 = 2.5 gallons to add to tank


Diluting, Liquid Formulations

‘‘Diluting, Liquid Formulations; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Application rates for liquid formulations (EC, F, etc.) are often listed as pints, quarts, or gallons per 100 gallons of diluent or per acre. To make these calculations, use the same formulas you use for calculating dilutions for dry formulations, but substitute the appropriate liquid measure for "pounds" in the formulas.


Directions for Use

‘‘Directions for Use; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Directly under the heading "Directions for Use" on every pesticide product labeling is the following statement: "It is a violation of Federal Law to use this product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling." The Directions for Use section also contains sections on storage and disposal and may contain a section on entry into treated areas after a pesticide application. In addition, the Directions for Use section will contain specific directions for product use.




Directions for Use by reference

‘‘Directions for Use by reference; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some directions for use that pesticide users must obey are contained in documents that are only referred to on the product labeling. Such instructions include EPA or other government agency regulations or requirements concerning the safe use of the pesticide product. For example, a pesticide label might state:

"Use of this product in a manner inconsistent with the PESTICIDE USE BULLETIN FOR PROTECTION OF ENDANGERED SPECIES is a violation of Federal laws. Restrictions for the protection of endangered species apply to this product. If restrictions apply to the area in which this product is to be used, you must obtain the PESTICIDE USE BULLETIN FOR PROTECTION OF ENDANGERED SPECIES for that county."

This statement probably would be the only indication on the pesticide label or in the labeling that other use directions and restrictions apply to the product.

You are responsible for determining whether the regulation, bulletin, or other document referred to on the pesticide product labeling applies to your situation and your intended use of the pesticide product. If the document is applicable, you must comply with all the specific directions for use and other requirements that it contains. These documents do not always accompany the pesticide product when it is sold. Instead, you may have to get the additional directions and requirements from other sources, such as pesticide dealers or company representatives, industry or commodity organizations, land-grant universities, or Cooperative Extension educators.

This reference to other documents is a new practice. It is necessary because there is no longer room on the traditional pesticide label to explain the requirements of all laws and regulations that may apply to the user. For example, EPA has adopted or is considering new requirements concerning:

  • Ground water protection
  • Endangered species protection
  • Pesticide transportation, storage, and disposal
  • Worker protection.

Some of these are general use directions that apply to all pesticides, so one copy should be sufficient for each affected user. In other cases, the instructions and restrictions apply only in certain geographical areas or to certain uses of a pesticide product. Directions for use applicable in these specific situations need to be distributed only to the affected users.

The EPA decision not to require all applicable directions for use to be distributed with each pesticide product places greater responsibility on the pesticide user. One sentence or paragraph on a pesticide label may be the only notice you will receive that additional use directions are required in order for the product to be used in compliance with its labeling. You must:

  • determine whether you are affected,
  • locate the applicable directions for use,
  • determine how to comply with the instructions and requirements in the directions for use, and
  • comply with those instructions and requirements.




Directions for Use, Entry statement

‘‘Directions for Use, Entry statement; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticide labeling contains a precaution about entering a treated area after application. This statement tells you how much time must pass before people can enter a treated area except under special circumstances. These entry intervals are set by both the EPA and some states. Entry intervals set by states are not always listed on the label; it is your responsibility to determine whether one has been set.

The entry statement may be printed in a box under the heading "Entry" or "Worker Protections," or it may be in a section with a title such as "Important," "Note," or "General Information." If the entry interval applies only to certain uses or locations, the heading may indicate that limitation. For example, the heading might be "Agricultural Use Restrictions."




Directions for Use, Other directions for use

‘‘Directions for Use, Other directions for use; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The instructions on how to use the pesticide are an important part of the labeling. This is the best way you can find out the right way to handle the product.

The use instructions will tell you:

  • the pests that the manufacturer claims the product will control,
  • The plant, animal, or site the product is intended to protect
  • In what form the product should be applied
  • The correct equipment to use
  • How much pesticide to use
  • Mixing directions
  • Whether the product can be mixed with other often-used products
  • Whether the product is likely to cause unwanted injuries or stains to plants, animals, or surfaces
  • Where the material should be applied, and
  • When and how often it should be applied.




Directions for Use, Storage and disposal

‘‘Directions for Use, Storage and disposal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

All pesticide labeling contains some instructions for storing the pesticide. These may include both general statements, such as "Keep out of reach of children and pets," and specific directions, such as "Do not store in temperatures below 32oF."

Pesticide labeling also contains some general information about how to dispose of excess pesticide and the pesticide container in ways that are acceptable under federal regulations. State and local laws vary, however, so the labeling usually does not give exact disposal instructions.

Storage and disposal statements usually appear in a special section of the labeling titled "Storage and Disposal."




Directions for Use, Use inconsistent with the labeling

‘‘Directions for Use, Use inconsistent with the labeling; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

It is illegal to use a pesticide in any way not permitted by the labeling. A pesticide may be used only on the plants, animals, or sites named in the Directions for Use. You may not use higher dosages, higher concentrations, or more frequent applications. You must follow all directions for use, including directions concerning safety, mixing, diluting, storage, and disposal. You must wear the specified personal protective equipment even though you may be risking only your own safety by not wearing it. The use directions and instructions are not advice, they are requirements.


Federal law does allow you to use pesticides in some ways not specifically mentioned in the labeling. Unless you would be in violation of the laws of your state or tribe, you may:

  • Apply a pesticide at any dosage, concentration, or frequency less than that listed on the labeling
  • Apply a pesticide against any target pest not listed on the labeling if the application is to a plant, animal, or site that is listed
  • Use any appropriate equipment or method of application that is not prohibited by the labeling
  • Mix a pesticide or pesticides with a fertilizer if the mixture is not prohibited by the labeling
  • Mix two or more pesticides, if all of the dosages are at or below the recommended rate




Drinking water standards

‘‘Drinking water standards; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

EPA has set standards for pesticide residue in drinking water for about 200 organic chemicals, many of which are pesticides. These standards include health advisories (HAs) in mg/L (ppm) for 1-day,10-day,and longer-term exposures for children and adults.

The HA is the concentration of a chemical in drinking water that is not expected to cause adverse effects over a lifetime of exposure. It is determined separately for pesticides that have not been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals and for those that have.

Following a more thorough evaluation, EPA has established maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) for many, but not all, pesticides. MCLs are the maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water that is delivered to any user of a public water system. MCLGs are nonenforceable concentrations of a drinking water contaminant that are protective of adverse human health effects and allow an adequate margin of safety.

EPA's Office of Water also establishes drinking water equivalent levels (DWELs). The DWEL is a lifetime exposure concentration protective of adverse, noncancer health effects that assumes all of the exposure to a contaminant is from a drinking water source.

EPA also establishes a reference dose (RfD) in mg/kg body weight per day for each registered pesticide. The RfD represents the level of daily exposure to a pesticide (through all possible routes of exposure) that is not expected to result in appreciable risks over a human lifetime. This value is based on studies with laboratory animals and usually incorporates a safety factor of 100 to compensate for differences in species sensitivity and sensitive subpopulations. Table 4 -7 lists drinking water standards and health advisories for four example pesticides.

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Dry Formulations: Baits (B)

‘‘Dry Formulations: Baits (B); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘


A bait formulation is an active ingredient mixed with food or another attractive substance. The bait either attracts the pests or is placed where the pests will find it. Pests are killed by eating the pesticide in the bait. The amount of active ingredient in most bait formulations is quite low, usually less than 5 percent.

Baits are used inside buildings to control ants, roaches, flies, other insects, and rodents. Outdoors they sometimes are used to control snails, slugs, and some insects, but their main use is to control vertebrate pests such as rodents, other mammals, and birds.


Advantages:

  • Ready to use
  • Entire area need not be covered, because pest goes to bait
  • Control pests that move in and out of an area


Disadvantages:

  • Can be attractive to children and pets
  • May kill domestic animals and nontarget wildlife outdoors
  • Pest may prefer the crop or other food to the bait
  • Dead pests may cause odor problem
  • Other animals may be poisoned as a result of feeding on the poisoned pests
  • If baits are not removed when the pesticide becomes ineffective, they may serve as a food supply for the target pest or other pests




Dry Formulations: Dusts (D)

‘‘Dry Formulations: Dusts (D); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘


Most dust formulations are ready to use and contain a low percentage of active ingredient (usually 1/2 to 10 percent), plus a very fine dry inert carrier made from talc, chalk, clay, nut hulls, or volcanic ash. The size of individual dust particles varies.

A few dust formulations are concentrates and contain a high percentage of active ingredient. These must be mixed with dry inert carriers before they can be applied.

Dusts are always used dry, and they easily drift into nontarget sites. Sometimes they are used for agricultural applications. In structures, dust formulations are used in cracks and crevices and for spot treatments. They are widely used in seed treatment. Dusts also are used to control lice, fleas, and other parasites on pets and livestock.


Advantages:

  • Usually ready to use, with no mixing
  • Effective where moisture from a spray might cause damage
  • Require simple equipment
  • Effective in hard-to-reach indoor areas


Disadvantages:

  • Easily drift off target during application
  • Residue easily moved off target by air movement or water
  • May irritate eyes, nose, throat, and skin
  • Do not stick to surfaces as well as liquids
  • Difficult to get an even distribution of particles on surfaces




Dry Formulations: Granules (G)

‘‘Dry Formulations: Granules (G); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘


Granular formulations are similar to dust formulations except that granular particles are larger and heavier. The coarse particles are made from an absorptive material such as clay, corn cobs, or walnut shells. The active ingredient either coats the outside of the granules or is absorbed into them. The amount of active ingredient is relatively low, usually ranging from 1 to 15 percent.

Granular pesticides are most often used to apply chemicals to the soil to control weeds, nematodes, and insects living in the soil. Sometimes granular formulations are used in airplane or helicopter applications to minimize drift or to penetrate dense vegetation.

Granular formulations also are used to control larval mosquitoes and other aquatic pests. Granules are used in agricultural, structural, ornamental, turf, aquatic, right-of-way, and public health (biting insect) pest control operations.


Advantages:

  • Ready to use -- no mixing
  • Drift hazard is low, and particles settle quickly
  • Little hazard to applicator -- no spray, little dust
  • Weight carries the formulation through foliage to soil or water target
  • Simple application equipment, such as seeders or fertilizer spreaders
  • May break down more slowly than wettable powders or Emulsifiable concentrates through a slow-release coating


Disadvantages:

  • Do not stick to foliage or other nonlevel surfaces
  • May need to be incorporated into soil or planting medium
  • May need moisture to start pesticidal action
  • May be hazardous to nontarget species, especially waterfowl and other birds that mistakenly feed on the grain- or seed-like granules




Dry Formulations: Pellets (P or PS)

‘‘Dry Formulations: Pellets (P or PS); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Most pellet formulations are very similar to granular formulations; the terms often are used interchangeably. In a pellet formulation, however, all particles are the same weight and shape. The uniformity of the particles allows them to be applied by precision applicators such as those being used for precision planting of pelleted seed. A few fumigants are formulated as pellets; however, these will be clearly labeled as fumigants and should not be confused with nonfumigant, granule-like pellets.




Dry Formulations: Soluble powders (SP or WSP)

‘‘Dry Formulations: Soluble powders (SP or WSP); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Soluble powder formulations look like wettable powders. However, when mixed with water, soluble powders dissolve readily and form a true solution. After they are mixed thoroughly, no additional agitation is necessary. The amount of active ingredient in soluble powders ranges from 15 to 95 percent; it usually is over 50 percent. Soluble powders have all the advantages of wettable powders and none of the disadvantages except the inhalation hazard during mixing. Few pesticides are available in this formulation because few active ingredients are soluble in water.

Microencapsulated Pesticides (M)

Microencapsulated formulations are particles of pesticides (liquid or dry) surrounded by a plastic coating. The formulated product is mixed with water and applied as a spray. Once applied, the capsule slowly releases the pesticide. The encapsulation process can prolong the active life of the pesticide by providing a timed release of the active ingredient.

Advantages:

  • Increased safety to applicator
  • Easy to mix, handle, and apply
  • Releases pesticide over a period of time

Disadvantages:

  • Constant agitation necessary in tank
  • Some bees may pick up the capsules and carry them back to their hive where the released pesticide may poison the entire hive
  • Water-Dispersible Granules (dry flowables) (WDG or DF)
  • Water-dispersible granular formulations are like wettable powder formulations, except the active ingredient is prepared as granule-sized particles. Water-dispersible granules must be mixed with water to be applied. Once in water, the granules break apart into fine powder. The formulation requires constant agitation to keep it suspended in water. Water-dispersible granules share the advantages and disadvantages of wettable powders except:
  • They are more easily measured and mixed
  • They cause less inhalation hazard to the applicator during pouring and mixing.




Dry Formulations: Wettable Powders (WP or W)

‘‘Dry Formulations: Wettable Powders (WP or W); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Wettable powders are dry, finely ground formulations that look like dusts. They usually must be mixed with water for application as a spray. A few products, however, may be applied either as a dust or as a wettable powder -- the choice is left to the applicator.

Wettable powders contain 5 to 95 percent active ingredient, usually 50 percent or more. Wettable powder particles do not dissolve in water. They settle out quickly unless constant agitation is used to keep them suspended.

Wettable powders are one of the most widely used pesticide formulations. They can be used for most pest problems and in most types of spray equipment where agitation is possible.


Advantages:

  • Easy to store, transport, and handle
  • Less likely than emulsifiable concentrates and other petroleum-based pesticides to cause unwanted harm to treated plants, animals, and surfaces
  • Easily measured and mixed
  • Less skin and eye absorption than emulsifiable concentrates and other liquid formulations


Disadvantages:

  • Inhalation hazard to applicator while pouring and mixing the concentrated powder
  • Require good and constant agitation (usually mechanical) in the spray tank and quickly settle out if agitation is turned off
  • Abrasive to many pumps and nozzles, causing them to wear out quickly
  • Difficult to mix in very hard or very alkaline water
  • Often clog nozzles and screens
  • Residues may be visible




Ecological Effects

‘‘Ecological Effects; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Chemicals released into the environment may have a variety of adverse ecological effects ranging from fish and wildlife kills to more subtle effects on reproduction or fitness that also can result in population decline. Ecological effects can be long-term or short-lived changes in the normal functioning of an ecosystem, resulting in economic, social, and aesthetic losses. These potential effects are an important reason for regulation of pesticides, toxic substances, or other sources of pollution.

Scientists are most concerned about the effects of chemicals and other pollutants on communities. Short-term and temporary effects are more easily measured than long-term pollution effects on ecosystem communities. Understanding the impact of effects requires knowledge of the time course and variability of these short-term changes. Pollutants may adversely affect communities by disrupting their normal structure and delicate interdependencies. The structure of a community includes its physical system, generally created by the plant life and geological processes, as well as the relationships between its populations of biota.

A pollutant may eliminate a species essential to the functioning of the entire community; it may promote the dominance of undesirable species (weeds, trash fish); or it may simply decrease the numbers and variety of species present in the community, It may also disrupt the dynamics of the food webs in the community by breaking existing dietary linkages between species. Most of these adverse effects in communities can be measured through changes in productivity in the ecosystem. Under natural stresses, such as unusual temperature and moisture conditions, the community may be unable to tolerate chemical effects that would otherwise cause no harm.

Wildlife may be exposed to pesticides via oral ,inhalation, and dermal routes of exposure (and in the case of fish, some amphibians, and many aquatic macroinvertebrates, through the gill). Table 4 -8 shows the toxic levels of different exposures. Because pesticides are widespread in the environment and are found in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, wildlife may be exposed in many ways.

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Economic Considerations

‘‘Economic Considerations; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

The concurrent handling of weed, insect, and disease control is known as Integrated Pest Management (IPM).This approach combines biological, cultural, mechanical, and other alternatives to chemical control with the judicious use of pesticides. The objective of

IPM is to reduce pest infestations below a level that causes economically significant damage while minimizing harmful effects of pest control on human health and environmental resources.

A key principle of IPM is that pesticides should only be used when field examination or "scouting" shows that infestations exceed a level which, if left untreated, would result in yield or quality reductions that exceed the costs of treatment.

Undesirable weeds and insects can cause crop injury. A small amount may be tolerable if it does not significantly affect crop yield or revenue from selling the crop. Nevertheless, if the level of pest infestation is sufficient to affect crop yield, decisions about using pesticides, biological and cultural treatments must consider whether the cost of treatment is less than the value of expected crop loss. Table 6 -1 lists potential pluses and minuses of implementing an IPM system.

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The list is not all-inclusive nor is it meant to be limited to any one particular set of circumstances. For example, field cultivation for weed control may increase or decrease, depending upon the management practices that were previously implemented. The next evaluation step consists of using the above information as a basis from which to determine the net economic impact of implementing IPM.



Economic Considerations - case study

‘‘Economic Considerations - case study; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

This example unit is a 500-acre farm with a confinement hog operation that has recently purchased a 160-acre unit. The farm raises 2,100 hogs @130 pounds annually, or a total of 273,000 pounds (273 animal units).For purposes of this analysis, it is assumed that:

  • 24 acres are set aside for a conservation buffer, reducing total cropping acreage to 636 acres. The producer plans to maintain:

-280 acres in corn

-280 acres in soybeans

-76 acres in wheat

  • Previously, weed and pest management were not actively considered. The producer used the same type and quantity of chemical inputs every year resulting in various infestations (most likely because of weed and pest resistance) and reduced yields.

The resource concerns include various weed and pest infestations on the cropland. The producer obtained average per-acre yields of 140 bushels corn,37 bushels soybeans, and 58 bushels wheat before implementing IPM. It is assumed that with the implementation of IPM, corn yields would increase by 5 bushels and soybean yields would increase by 2 bushels, while there will be no yield change for wheat.

There is an offsite water quality concern in the reservoir downstream. Neighbors are sensitive to any increase in chemical use on cropland that may affect it. After attending a public meeting on the lake 's water quality, the producer became concerned about the effects of residual pesticide and herbicide on the family 's water supply.

Added returns

Added returns include those items that will increase income to the landowner, such as increased crop yields. In this scenario, IPM would increase per acre crop yields by 5 bushels for corn and 2 bushels for soybeans.

Reduced costs

Reduced costs typically include variable production costs for crop production. Variable costs change as production is changed. In this scenario there are no discernible reduced costs.

Reduced returns

Reduced returns include those items that will decrease the landowner 's revenue. They normally consist of any reduced yields that may occur through a change in a cropping practice. In this scenario there are no discernible reduced returns.

Added costs

Added costs include those items that increase the cost to the landowner and consist of the certified crop consultant's management fees.

Conclusion

This analysis indicates integrated pest management will reduce onfarm pest infestations, increase yields, alleviate drinking water concerns, and address offsite water quality concerns. This can be accomplished for an added cost of about $3,369.Revenues would increase by $5,964.This represents a net increase of nearly $2,600,or $4.08 per acre for the 636 acres in

production. See table 6-2.

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Endangered Species, Habitats of

‘‘Endangered Species, Habitats of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for identifying the current habitat or range of each endangered species. For aquatic species, the restricted habitat often will include an additional zone around the body of water to keep any drift, runoff, or leachate in the watershed from reaching the water.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is attempting to identify the habitats as accurately as possible so that pesticide use will need to be limited only in locations where it is absolutely necessary. For this reason, limitations on pesticide use may apply on one property, while a similar adjoining property may not have these limitations.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Agriculture

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Agriculture; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Nearly all of today's crops started as wild species. Genes from wild species often are used to create new hybrids that have resistance to plant diseases and insects, better climatic tolerance, and higher yields. Having different varieties available is necessary insurance against devastating crop failures caused by climate extremes or major pest outbreaks.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Interdependence

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Interdependence; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The extinction of a single species can set off a chain reaction of harm to other species. The disappearance of a single kind of plant from an area, for example, may lead to the disappearance of certain insects, higher animals, and other plants.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Medicine

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Medicine; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Many of today's most important medicines come from obscure plant and animal species. A mold is the source of penicillin, the miracle drug; an herb is the source of quinine, a cure for malaria. Scientists are testing countless plant and animal species around the world for sources of cures for major diseases.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Natural balance

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Natural balance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Extinction has always been a natural part of an ever-changing process. During most of history, species have formed at a rate greater than the rate of extinctions. Now, however, it appears that human activity is greatly speeding up the rate of extinctions. People, plants, and animals live together in a delicate balance; the disappearance of species could easily upset that balance.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Preserving choices

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Preserving choices; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

No one can predict which species may be essential to the future of mankind. A species that is allowed to become extinct might have been the key to stopping a global epidemic or to surviving a major climate change.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Stability

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting -- Stability; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The more diversity that exists in an ecosystem, the more stable it is likely to be. There is less likelihood of huge swings in populations of particular organisms. There is also less likelihood of devastation from the introduction of a new species from outside the system.




Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting

‘‘Endangered Species, Importance of Protecting; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Hundreds of animals (including fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and aquatic invertebrates) and thousands of plants have been named as endangered or threatened species under the provisions of the Endangered Species Act. Some of these animals and plants are ones that everyone knows about, such as the bald eagle. Others are tiny, little-known creatures that may rarely be seen by anyone except trained naturalists.

Regardless of the size or apparent significance of these endangered species, it is important that each is allowed to survive -- mankind's well-being depends on maintaining biological diversity. Biological diversity is the variety and differences among living things, and the complex ways they interact. Diversity is necessary for several reasons:




Endangered Species, Law

‘‘Endangered Species, Law; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) is a federal law administered by the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) of the Department of the Interior. The ESA makes it illegal to kill, harm, or collect endangered or threatened wildlife or fish or to remove endangered or threatened plants from areas under federal jurisdiction. It also requires other federal agencies to ensure that any action they carry out or authorize is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species, or to destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. As a result, EPA must ensure that no registered pesticide use is likely to jeopardize the survival of any endangered or threatened species.

The FWS has the authority to designate land and freshwater species as endangered or threatened and to identify their current habitat or range. The National Marine Fisheries Service has the same authority for marine species.

The FWS has the authority to prosecute persons, including pesticide users, who harm endangered or threatened species. In addition, EPA enforcement personnel have the authority to ensure that pesticide users observe labeling restrictions.




Endangered Species, Limitations on Pesticide Use

‘‘Endangered Species, Limitations on Pesticide Use; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Read all pesticide labeling carefully to find out whether the use of that product requires you to take any special steps to protect endangered species. The label may direct you to another source for the details about what you must do. When limitations do apply, they usually will be in effect only in some specific geographic locations. Use of a particular pesticide is usually limited in a particular location when:

  • the site is designated as the current habitat of an endangered species, and
  • the endangered species that uses the site might be harmed by the use of the pesticide within (or close to) its habitat.




Endangered Species, Protection of

‘‘Endangered Species, Protection of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

An endangered species is a plant or animal in danger of becoming extinct. There are two classifications of these plants and animals -- "endangered species" and "threatened species." The term "endangered species" is used here to refer to the two classifications collectively. Scientists believe that some pesticides may threaten the survival of some of America's endangered species if they are used where these plants and animals still exist.

A federal law, the Endangered Species Act, requires the EPA to ensure that endangered species are protected from pesticides. An EPA goal is to remove or reduce the threat that pesticide use poses to endangered species. Reaching this goal will require some limitations on pesticide use. These limitations usually will apply only in the currently occupied habitat or range of each endangered species at risk. Occasionally the limitations will apply where endangered species are being reintroduced into a habitat they previously occupied.

Habitats, sometimes called "critical habitats," are the areas of land, water, and air space that an endangered species needs for survival. Such areas include breeding sites; sources of food, cover, and shelter; and surrounding territory that gives room for normal population growth and behavior.




Endangered Species, The Certified Applicator's Role

‘‘Endangered Species, The Certified Applicator's Role; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides have the potential to harm living organisms, including endangered species:

Pesticides can kill endangered plants and animals directly.

Pesticides in the habitat of the endangered organisms can disrupt or destroy their sources of food and shelter.

Pesticide application, drift, runoff, and leachate can contaminate water ingested by or inhabited by endangered organisms.

Some pesticides can build up to dangerous levels in endangered predators that feed on plants or animals exposed to pesticides.

As a certified applicator, you have a clearly defined legal responsibility to protect endangered species against the hazards posed by pesticides. Using pesticides carefully in and around the key habitat areas will help these fragile plants and animals survive, and it also may prevent some important pesticides from being removed from the market.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to concerns about endangered species include:

"Under the Endangered Species Act, it is a Federal offense to use any pesticide in a manner that results in the death of a member of an endangered species. Prior to making applications, the user must determine that endangered species are not located in or immediately adjacent to the site to be treated. If the users are in doubt whether or not endangered species may be affected, they should contact the regional U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service office (Endangered Species specialist) or personnel of the State Fish and Game office."

"Endangered Species Restrictions: For Aerial Application -- Do not use within 100 yards of aquatic habitats. For Ground Application -- Do not use within 20 yards of aquatic habitats."




Environmental Hazards

‘‘Environmental Hazards; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

This section of the pesticide labeling will indicate precautions for protecting the environment when you use the pesticide. Some general statements appear on the labeling of nearly every pesticide. Most pesticide labeling, for example, will warn you not to contaminate water when you apply the pesticide or when you clean your equipment or dispose of pesticide wastes. The labeling will contain specific precautionary statements if the pesticide poses a specific hazard to the environment. For example, it may warn you that the product is highly toxic to bees or other wildlife.




Environmental Risks -- Chemical control

‘‘Environmental Risks -- Chemical control; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

The environmental risks of pest management using chemical control are:

  • Risk of pesticides leaving the agricultural management zone (AMZ) in soil, water and air, and negatively impacting nontarget plants, animals, and humans. (The boundaries of the AMZ are the edge of the field, the bottom of the root zone, and the top of the crop canopy.)
  • Risk of harming beneficial organisms with pesticide application.
  • Risk to personal safety during pesticide application.

Tools are available to help evaluate the potential for pesticides to leave the AMZ and impact nontarget plants, animals, and humans. National assessments can be used for strategic planning purposes. Figures 3 -1 and 3 -2 show national pesticide leaching and runoff indexes. The full text describing these maps can be viewed at http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/land/pubs/gosstext.html. The following is an excerpt from that text:

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Environmental Risks -- National Modeling

‘‘Environmental Risks -- National Modeling; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

The National Pesticide Loss Database was used with the National Resources Inventory (NRI) to simulate pesticide loss by watershed for use in identifying potential priority watersheds for implementation of conservation programs.

The NRI was used as a modeling framework and as a source of land use data and soil data. Each NRI sample point was treated as a representative field in the simulation model. The simulation was conducted using 13 crops-barley, corn, cotton, oats, peanuts, potatoes, rice, sorghum, soybeans, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and wheat-which comprise about 170,000 NRI sample points. The statistical weights associated with the NRI sample points are used as a measure of how many acres each representative field represents. Land use for the most recent inventory1992-was used.

Pesticide use data were taken from Gianessi and Anderson, who estimated the average application rate and the percentage of acres treated by state for over 200 pesticides and for 84 crops for the time period 1990-93.Estimates of percent acres treated and application rate were imputed onto NRI sample points by state and crop. Map 2 was created by multiplying the percent acres treated times the acres represented by each point to obtain the acres treated for each pesticide, and then multiplying by the application rate and summing over the pesticides at each NRI sample point to obtain the total pounds of pesticides applied. These results were aggregated over NRI sample points in each 8-digit hydrologic unit in the 48 states.

Estimates of pesticide loss from the National Pesticide Loss Database were imputed onto the 170,000 sample points according to soil type, geographic location, and pesticide. Mass loss and annual concentration were calculated for each pesticide at each sample point. Mass loss estimates were then aggregated over acres treated in each watershed to produce national maps. Concentrations were compared to water quality thresholds to derive a measure of environmental risk at each NRI sample point. Health Advisories (HAs) and Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) were used for humans for pesticides that have been assigned drinking water standards by EPA. For other pesticides, "safe" thresholds were estimated from EPA Reference Dose values and cancer slope data. Maximum Acceptable Toxicant Concentrations (MATCs) were used as "safe" thresholds for fish, which were calculated using toxicity data published by EPA.

The extent to which the concentration exceeded the threshold was used as a measure of risk for each pesticide. This risk measure was aggregated over the pesticides at each point and then multiplied by the number of acres treated and summed over the points in each watershed to obtain an aggregate risk measure for each watershed -Threshold Exceedence Units (TEUs) per watershed. TEUs are similar in concept to the acre-feet volumetric measure, since they are a multiple of acres times a measure of magnitude at a point. They are used here only to measure relative risk from one watershed to another; the higher the TEU score, the higher the risk.]

Watershed level analysis (fig.3 -3) can be used to address specific water quality concerns and show the potential for management solutions to protect natural resources.

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Field scale tools can be used to address identified resource concerns in targeted areas. The Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST) can help field office personnel evaluate the potential for offsite pesticide movement on a field-by-field basis. It is based on the NRCS Soil/Pesticide Interaction Screening Procedure (SPISP II) and National Agricultural Pesticide Risk Analysis (NAPRA) generic scenario results. The tool is illustrated in figures 3 -4, 3 -5, 3 -6, 3 -7, and 3 -8.


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Soil/pesticide interaction ratings for all applicable soils and pesticides provide a means to evaluate the potential environmental risks associated with all recommended alternatives. Appropriate mitigation strategies should be matched with alternatives that have substantial environmental risk(s).




EPA Approval of Pesticide Labeling

‘‘EPA Approval of Pesticide Labeling; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

No pesticide may be sold in the United States until the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reviewed the manufacturer's application for registration and determined that the use of the product will not present an unreasonable risk to humans or the environment. As part of this product registration process, EPA has certain labeling information requirements and must approve all language that the manufacturer proposes to include in the product labeling.

EPA reviews the labeling to make sure that it contains all the information needed for safe and effective use of the pesticide product and that the information is backed up by data submitted (or cited) by the manufacturer. EPA may require the manufacturer to change the labeling if it does not contain enough information or if the information is wrong. EPA also may require that the labeling include other information about laws or regulations that have been adopted to protect humans or the environment.

Only after EPA has reviewed the labeling and registered the product can a pesticide product be sold. If the manufacturer wants to change the information in the labeling after the product and labeling are registered, EPA must approve the change. EPA also may require changes in labeling.




Equipment, Personal Protective

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Personal protective equipment (PPE) are clothing and devices worn to protect the human body from contact with pesticides or pesticide residues. Personal protective equipment includes coveralls or protective suits, footwear, gloves, aprons, respirators, eyewear, and headgear.

Ordinary shirts, pants, shoes and other regular work clothing usually are not considered personal protective equipment, although the pesticide labeling may require you to wear specific items of work clothing during some activities.

Exposure to pesticides can cause harmful effects. To prevent or reduce exposure to pesticides, you need to wear personal protective equipment. You are legally required to follow all personal protective equipment instructions on the label or with the labeling.

Remember, the lack of any requirement for personal protective equipment or the mention of only one piece of equipment does not rule out the need for more protection. No pesticide labeling instructions can cover all situations. Your common sense, the information on the labeling about precautions for humans, and the task you will be performing will help you to assess your potential hazard and to select the amount and kind of personal protective equipment you need for each handling job.

Pesticide labeling lists the minimum personal protective equipment you must wear while handling the pesticide. Sometimes the labeling lists different requirements for different activities. For example, more personal protective equipment may be required for mixing and loading than for application.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Body

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Body; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Any time you handle pesticides, wear at least a long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants. In many instances the pesticide labeling will require you to wear a coverall, a chemical-resistant suit, or a chemical-resistant apron.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Chemical-Resistance

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Chemical-Resistance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticide labeling requires you to wear chemical-resistant personal protective equipment. You must select a material that will be resistant for the period of time that you will be exposed to the pesticide. Most chemical-resistant personal protective equipment items are made of plastic or rubber, but these materials are not equally resistant to all pesticides and in all circumstances.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Chemical-resistant apron

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Chemical-resistant apron; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The pesticide labeling may require you to wear a chemical-resistant apron while you are mixing and loading the pesticide and while you are cleaning pesticide equipment. Consider wearing an apron whenever you are handling pesticide concentrates. It will protect you from splashes, spills, and billowing dusts and will protect your coverall or other clothing. Wear an apron over the coverall or long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants required for application or other handling activities.

Choose an apron that extends from your neck to at least your knees. Some aprons have attached sleeves and gloves. This style is especially protective because it protects your arms, hands, and front and eliminates the potential gap where the sleeve and glove or sleeve and apron meet.

Sometimes an apron can be a safety hazard. It can get caught in machinery or get in your way. At those times, consider wearing a chemical-resistant suit.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Chemical-resistant suit

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Chemical-resistant suit; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticide labeling requires handlers to wear a chemical-resistant suit. This usually indicates that the pesticide is very hazardous, either for acute effects or for delayed effects, and that extra precaution is necessary to prevent the pesticide from getting on you.

If you expect to be in a situation where a large amount of pesticide could be deposited on your clothing, and if you will be in that situation for a long time, consider wearing a chemical-resistant suit even if the pesticide labeling does not require it. Under those circumstances, even pesticides that are applied dry, such as dusts or granules, can get through ordinary fabric and harm you.

Chemical-resistant suits made of rubber or plastic often are referred to as "rainsuits." They may be sold as one-piece coveralls or as two-piece outfits consisting of a jacket worn over overalls. Chemical-resistant suits made of coated non-woven fabric usually are sold as one-piece coveralls.

The biggest drawback to chemical-resistant suits is that they may make you uncomfortably warm. Unless you are handling pesticides in cool or climate-controlled environments, heat stress becomes a major concern. Wearing a chemical-resistant suit in even moderate temperature and humidity conditions can cause you to become overheated very quickly. Take extra precautions to avoid heat stress by drinking plenty of water and taking frequent rest breaks to cool down.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Choosing Chemical Resistant Materials

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Choosing Chemical Resistant Materials; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Always read the pesticide labeling to see if it tells you what materials are resistant to the pesticide product. If it does not, look for another source of information. The Environmental Protection Agency, the United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative Extension Service, pesticide producers, or personal protective equipment manufacturers may offer guidance about which materials are resistant to particular pesticides. When no outside advice is available, use your best judgment to select a material.

When selecting a chemical-resistant material, there are some general guidelines to follow. Cotton, leather, canvas, and other absorbent materials are not chemical resistant, even to dry formulations. Powders and dusts sometimes move through cotton and other woven materials as quickly as wet formulations and may remain in the fibers even after three launderings. Do not use hats that have a cloth or leather sweatband, and do not use cloth or cloth-lined gloves, footwear, and aprons. These materials are difficult or impossible to clean after pesticide gets on them, and they are too expensive to be disposed of after each use.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Coveralls

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Coveralls; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Coveralls should be made of sturdy material such as cotton, polyester, a cotton-synthetic blend, denim, or a non-woven fabric. One-piece coveralls look like jump suits or flight suits. Two-piece coveralls look like surgeons' suits. When wearing a coverall, close the opening securely so the entire body except the feet, hands, neck, and head are covered. If you wear a two-piece coverall, do not tuck it in at the waist; the shirt should extend well below the waist of the pants and fit loosely around the hips.

When handling pesticides that are highly or moderately toxic dermally or are skin irritants, consider wearing a coverall over another set of clothing. An entire set of clothing such as a long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants worn under the coverall is ideal. The pesticide label sometimes specifies a particular type of clothing to be worn under the coverall. Always read the pesticide label before making decisions about the use of coveralls or any other protective equipment. If the pesticide label states specific protective clothing requirements, you must follow them.

Several factors determine how well a coverall will protect you. Each layer of clothing and each layer of air between the pesticide and your skin provides added protection. That is why the coverall should fit loosely. If it fits tightly, there will not be a layer of air between it and your skin, and any pesticide getting through the coverall will be in direct contact with your skin.

The design and structure of coveralls also affect how well they will protect you. Well-designed coveralls have tightly constructed seams and snug, overlapping closures that do not gap or become unfastened readily. This construction makes it harder for pesticides to get through these areas and onto your inner clothing or your skin.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Disposables and Reusables

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Disposables and Reusables; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Personal protective equipment items either should be disposable or should be easy to clean and sturdy enough for repeated use.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Disposables

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Disposables; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Disposable personal protective equipment items are not designed to be cleaned and reused. Discard them when they become contaminated with pesticides.

Chemical-resistant gloves, footwear, and aprons that are labeled as disposable are designed to be worn only once and then thrown away. These items often are made of thin vinyl, latex, or polyethylene. These inexpensive disposables may be a good choice for brief pesticide handling activities that require flexibility and will not tear the thin plastic. For example, you might use disposable gloves, shoe covers, and an apron while pouring pesticides into a hopper or tank, cleaning or adjusting a nozzle, or making minor equipment adjustments.

Non-woven (including coated non-woven) coveralls and hoods usually are designed to be disposed of after use. Most are intended to be worn for only one workday's exposure period. The instructions with some coated non-woven suits and hoods may permit you to wear them more than once if each period of use is short and they do not get much pesticide on them. Be especially alert when reusing these items, and be ready to change them whenever there are signs that pesticides could be getting through the material or that the inside surface is contaminated.

Dust/mist masks, prefilters, canisters, filtering and vapor-removing cartridges, and a few cartridge respirators are disposable. They cannot be cleaned and should be replaced often.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Drying, Procedure

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Drying, Procedure; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Hang the items to dry, if possible. It is best to let them hang for at least 24 hours in an area with plenty of fresh air. Even after thorough washing, some items still may contain pesticides. When the items are exposed to clean air, remaining pesticide residues move to the surface and evaporate. You may wish to buy two or more sets of equipment at a time so you can leave one set airing in a clean place while you are using the other set. Do not hang items in enclosed living areas, because pesticides that remain in the items may evaporate and expose people or animals in the area.

Using a clothes dryer is acceptable for fabric items, if it is not possible to hang them to dry. However, over a period of time, the dryer may become contaminated with pesticide residues.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Eyes

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Eyes; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When the pesticide labeling requires you to wear protective eyewear, wear goggles, a face shield, or safety glasses with shields at both the brow and sides. Eyes are very sensitive to the chemicals in some pesticide formulations, especially concentrates, and temporary blindness caused by an accident may delay or prevent self-treatment. Eyes also readily absorb some pesticides.

Shielded safety glasses or full-face shields are a good choice in many handling situations because they are comfortable, do not cause fogging or sweating, and give good eye protection for many exposure situations. Face shields that are cupped inward toward your throat give better protection from splashes than straight face shields. However, if you will be in an open cab during an airblast application, flagging directly under an aerial application, applying mists, fogs, or aerosols indoors, or in any other situation where you will be enveloped in a spray, mist, or dust, wear goggles that fit tightly against your face.

Either goggles or shielded safety glasses can be worn with a half-face respirator. Full-face respirators are supplied with their own face shield, so additional eye protection is not required.


Interpreting Labeling PPE Statements

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant hood or wide-brimmed hat

Acceptable PPE: Rubber- or plastic-coated safari-style hat; rubber- or plastic-coated fire-fighter-style hat; plastic- or other barrier-coated hood; rubber or plastic hood; or full hood or helmet that is part of some respirators

Labeling Statement: Protective eyewear

Acceptable PPE: Shielded safety glasses; face shield; goggles; or full-face style respirator

Labeling Statement: Goggles

Acceptable PPE: Goggles; or full-face style respirator

Labeling Statement: Dust/mist filtering respirator

Acceptable PPE: Dust/mist respirator; respirator with dust/mist filtering cartridges; respirator with organic vapor-removing cartridge and pesticide prefilter; or respirator with canister approved for pesticides; or air-supplying respirator

Labeling Statement: Cartridge respirator

Acceptable PPE: Respirator with organic vapor-removing cartridge and pesticide prefilter; or respirator with canister approved for pesticides; or air-supplying respirator

Labeling Statement: Canister respirator (gas mask)

Acceptable PPE: Respirator with canister approved for pesticides, or air-supplying respirator

Labeling Statement: Air-supplying respirator or Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)

Acceptable PPE: Air-supplying respirator or self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Factors Affecting Resistance

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Factors Affecting Resistance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

How chemical-resistant a material will he in your pesticide handling situation depends on the length of exposure, the exposure situation, and the chemical to which the material is exposed.

Length of exposure -- Not all types of materials that are resistant to a particular pesticide will protect you for the same amount of time. Some materials will keep the pesticide out for a fairly long time. Others will allow the pesticide to go through the material to your skin fairly quickly. Thin materials, such as disposable plastic gloves, shoe covers, or aprons, may be as much protection as you need for tasks that can be done in a few minutes. Longer jobs usually require items made of a heavier material.

Chemical resistance is often stated in terms of exposure time. For example, neoprene is resistant to acetone for 30 minutes or less and to diesel fuel for more than 4 hours. If you wear neoprene gloves while handling pesticides with an acetone solvent, you must change the gloves at least every 30 minutes; otherwise, the pesticide and the acetone will get through the gloves and onto your hands.

Exposure situation -- Even a chemical-resistant material will not continue to protect you if it becomes damaged during pesticide handling. For tasks involving sharp or pointed objects or walking through rough terrain, for example, a heavy-duty or sturdy material probably would be necessary to ensure chemical resistance.

Type of chemical -- Few materials will protect you from all pesticide products. The level of chemical resistance may depend not only on what the active ingredient is, but also on whether the pesticide is liquid or dry and what diluents or solvents are used.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Fumigants

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Fumigants; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Fumigants are pesticides applied as a gas or that readily form a gas when they are applied. Their pesticidal action is in the gaseous form. Fumigants are very highly toxic to plants and animals, including humans. Use extreme caution and wear appropriate personal protective equipment whenever you handle fumigants. The requirements for personal protective equipment when using fumigants are different from the requirements for other types of pesticides. Follow labeling directions for each fumigant exactly.

Inhaling even small amounts of some fumigant gases can be fatal or cause severe injury. Wear the respirator listed on the fumigant labeling during any handling activity, including removing tarps or other coverings, when exposure to the gas is likely.

Never work alone with fumigants, especially in enclosed areas. Arrange to be monitored at all times by another handler who has immediate access to an appropriate respirator, in case rescue is needed.

While handling a fumigant indoors or in any enclosed area, use an air-supplying respirator. In enclosed areas such as greenhouses, ship holds, railcars, bins, vaults, and chambers there may not be enough oxygen for you to breathe. Cartridge and canister respirators will not protect you in these situations.

Some fumigants readily penetrate plastic, rubber, and leather. These fumigants may be trapped inside gloves, boots, or tight-fitting coveralls and cause severe skin irritation or lead to poisoning through skin absorption. The labeling on these fumigants will tell you the appropriate personal protective equipment to wear while handling them. Such labeling often will tell you to wear loose-fitting clothes and "breathable" footwear such as canvas or other fabric. The labeling may tell you not to wear any gloves or to wear cotton or other absorbent gloves.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Gloves and Footwear

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Gloves and Footwear; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Always start out with gloves and footwear that you know are new or freshly cleaned. Don't choose a pair just because they are close by. They may already have pesticides on the inside and will not protect your hands or feet.

If pesticides get inside your gloves or footwear, take them off immediately, wash your hands or feet, and put on a clean pair. Keep several pairs of gloves and footwear available and change to a clean set whenever you suspect the inside has become contaminated.

Avoid contaminating the inside of gloves and footwear -- Even when you are wearing gloves and footwear, you can get pesticides on your hands and feet unless the gloves and footwear are:

  • chemical-resistant to the pesticide being handled,
  • worn correctly,
  • in good condition,
  • cleaned and cared for, and
  • replaced often.

Contamination often happens when handlers remove their gloves briefly to adjust their equipment, open a pesticide container, wipe their face, etc., and then put the gloves on again over their contaminated hands. If you must remove your gloves during a handling activity, wash your gloves thoroughly before taking them off, and wash your hands thoroughly and dry them before you put the gloves on again.

Handlers also sometimes make the mistake of putting on footwear with contaminated hands. This may transfer the pesticide from your hands to your socks and feet.

Keep pesticides from running down your sleeves or pant legs and into your gloves and footwear. For many jobs, you must be working with your arms raised and some of the time with them lowered. Close the glove cuff tightly outside the sleeve and put heavy-duty tape or an elastic band around the end of the glove where it meets the sleeve. Some gloves have a method of tightening the cuff to your sleeve so the pesticide cannot run down into the glove.

For jobs where your arms are mostly lowered, place sleeves outside the gloves to keep pesticides from running down the sleeves and into the gloves. Use gloves that go up over your wrist and at least half way to your elbow. If you will be raising your arms most of the time, you may leave your gloves outside your sleeves. Fold the cuff of your gloves up toward your fingers an inch or two to catch the pesticide before it runs down your arm.

For jobs when you will be exposed to pesticides on your legs, put your pant legs outside the boots so the pesticide will not travel down your leg and collect in the hoots or shoe covers.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Gloves, Footwear, etc

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Gloves, Footware, etc; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Other chemical-resistant items -- For other chemical-resistant items, such as gloves, footwear, aprons, and hats, you can choose from many types of materials. Barrier-laminate materials such as 4Hr or Silver Shieldr are resistant to most pesticides, but many pesticide handlers consider them uncomfortable to wear and difficult to use while performing many tasks.

Any plastic or rubber material is resistant to dry pesticides and to water-based pesticides. Dry pesticides include dusts, granules, pellets, and some baits. Water-based pesticides include wettable powders, soluble powders, some solutions, dry flowables (water-dispersible granules), and microencapsulated pesticides.

The type of material that is resistant to non-water-based liquid pesticides depends on the type of solvent used. Pesticides that do not dissolve in water are often mixed with other solvents to form liquid formulations. Liquid pesticides that are not water based include emulsifiable concentrates, ultra-low-volume and low-volume concentrates, low-concentrate solutions, flowables, aerosols, and invert emulsions.

Common solvents are xylene, fuel oil, other petroleum distillates, and alcohol. When xylene is in a formulation, it must be listed in the ingredient statement on the front panel of the pesticide label. If xylene is listed as an ingredient, these are the materials you should choose:

Some solvents do not have to be listed in the ingredient statement, so you may not be able to choose a chemical-resistant material on the basis of what is in the formulation. For these pesticides, select sturdy barrier-laminate, butyl, or nitrile materials. Then watch for signs that the material is not chemical resistant. Sometimes it is easy to see when a plastic or rubber is not resistant to a pesticide. The material may:

  • change color,
  • become soft or spongy,
  • swell or bubble up,
  • dissolve or become like jelly,
  • crack or get holes,
  • become stiff or brittle.

If any of these changes occur, discard the item and choose another material.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Hand and Foot Protection

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Hand and Foot Protection; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide handlers get by far the most pesticide exposure on their hands and forearms. As a result, most pesticide labeling will require you to wear chemical-resistant gloves at all times while handling the pesticide. Wear chemical-resistant gloves any time you may get pesticides on your hands.

Pesticide handlers also often get pesticides on their feet. Sturdy shoes and socks are sufficient to protect your feet during a few pesticide handling activities. Canvas, cloth, and leather are difficult or impossible to clean adequately, however. Consider using chemical-resistant materials when pesticides or pesticide residues, especially concentrates, may get on your footwear. Some pesticide labeling requires you to wear chemical-resistant footwear. Such footwear can be shoes, shoe covers, or boots. If a pesticide is likely to get on your lower legs or feet, consider wearing chemical-resistant boots. The boots should extend past the ankle and at least halfway up the knee.

One situation where you should not wear chemical-resistant gloves and footwear is when handling some fumigants, such as methyl bromide, because the gloves and footwear can trap the gas near the skin and cause bums. The labeling on these fumigants will instruct you not to wear chemical-resistant gloves and footwear or other chemical-resistant clothing.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Head and Neck Protection

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Head and Neck Protection; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you will be exposed to pesticides from above, protect your head and neck. A chemical-resistant hood or wide-brimmed hat will help keep pesticides off your head, neck, eyes, mouth, and face. Plastic "safari" hats with plastic sweatbands are a good choice. They are relatively cool in hot weather. Other more flexible hats and hoods are also available in chemical-resistant materials. Many chemical-resistant jackets or coveralls can be purchased with attached protective hoods.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Interpreting Labeling PPE Statements

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Interpreting Labeling PPE Statements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Labeling Statement: Long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants non-woven coverall;

Acceptable PPE: Long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants; woven or plastic- or other barrier-coated coverall; or rubber or plastic suit

Labeling Statement: Coverall worn over short-sleeved shirt and short pants

Acceptable PPE: Coverall over short-sleeved shirt and short pants; coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants; coverall worn over another coverall; plastic- or other barrier-coated coverall; or rubber or plastic suit

Labeling Statement: Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants

Acceptable PPE: Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants; coverall worn over another coverall; plastic- or other barrier-coated coverall; or rubber or plastic suit

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant apron worn over coverall or over long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants

Acceptable PPE: Chemical-resistant apron worn over coverall or long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants; plastic- or other barrier-coated coverall; or rubber or plastic suit

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant protective suit or rubber or plastic suit

Acceptable PPE: Plastic- or other barrier-coated coveralls;

Labeling Statement: Waterproof suit or liquidproof suit

Acceptable PPE: Plastic- or other barrier-coated coveralls; or rubber or plastic suit




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Interpreting Labeling PPE Statements

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Interpreting Labeling PPE Statements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Labeling Statement: Waterproof gloves

Acceptable PPE: Any rubber or plastic gloves sturdy enough to remain intact throughout the task being performed.

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant gloves

Acceptable PPE: Barrier-laminate gloves; or other gloves that glove selection charts or guidance documents indicate are chemical-resistant to the pesticide for the period of time required to perform the task

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant gloves such as butyl or nitrile

Acceptable PPE: Butyl-gloves; nitrile gloves; or other gloves that glove selection charts or guidance documents indicate are chemical-resistant to the pesticide for the period of time required to perform the task

Labeling Statement: Shoes

Acceptable PPE: Leather, canvas or fabric shoes; chemical-resistant shoes; chemical-resistant boots; or chemical-resistant shoe coverings (booties)

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant footwear

Acceptable PPE: Chemical-resistant shoes; chemical-resistant boots; or chemical-resistant shoe coverings (booties)

Labeling Statement: Chemical-resistant boots

Acceptable PPE: Chemical-resistant boots




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Maintainance

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Maintainance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you finish an activity where you are handling pesticides or are exposed to them, remove your personal protective equipment right away. Wash the outside of your gloves with detergent and water before you remove them. Consider washing the outside of other chemical-resistant items before you remove them also. This helps you avoid contacting the contaminated part of the items while you are removing them and helps keep the inside surface uncontaminated. If any other clothes have pesticides on them, change them also. Determine whether the items should be disposed of or cleaned for reuse.

Place reusable items in a plastic bag or hamper away from your other personal clothes and away from the family laundry. Place disposables in a separate plastic bag or container. The pesticides remaining on your personal protective equipment, work clothing, and other work items could injure persons who touch them. Do not allow children or pets near them. Do not allow contaminated gloves, boots, respirators, or other equipment to be washed in streams, ponds, or other bodies of water.

Clean all reusable personal protective equipment items between uses. Even if they were worn for only a brief period of exposure to pesticides during that day, wash them before you wear them again. Pesticide residues that remain on the personal protective equipment are likely to continue to move slowly through the personal protective equipment material, even chemical-resistant material. If you wear that personal protective equipment again, pesticide may already be on the inside next to your skin. Also, personal protective equipment that is worn several times between launderings may build up pesticide residues. The residues can reach a level that can harm you, even if you are handling pesticides that are not highly toxic.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Maintaining Eyewear and Respirators

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Maintaining Eyewear and Respirators; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Wash goggles, face shields, shielded safety glasses, and respirator bodies and facepieces after each day of use. Use a detergent and hot water to wash them thoroughly. Sanitize them by soaking for at least two minutes in a mixture of 2 tablespoons of chlorine bleach in a gallon of hot water. Rinse thoroughly to remove the detergent and bleach. Dry thoroughly or hang them in a clean area to dry.

Pay particular attention to the headbands. Replace headbands made of absorbent materials with chemical-resistant headbands. After each day of use, inspect all headbands for signs of wear or deterioration and replace as needed.

Store respirators and eyewear in an area where they are protected from dust, sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and pesticides or other chemicals. A zip-closable sturdy plastic bag works well for storage.

Respirator maintenance is especially important. Inspect your respirator before each use. Repair or replace it whenever any part shows sign of wear or deterioration. Maintain an inventory of replacement parts for the respirators you own, and do not try to use makeshift substitutes or incompatible brands. If you keep a respirator for standby or emergency use, inspect it at least monthly and before use.

If you remove your respirator between handling activities:

  • Wipe the respirator body and facepiece with a clean cloth.
  • Replace caps, if available, over cartridges, canisters, and prefilters.
  • Seal the entire respirator in a sturdy, airtight container, such as a zip-closable plastic bag. If you do not seal the respirator immediately after each use, the disposable parts will have to be replaced more often. Cartridges, canisters, prefilters, and filters will continue to collect impurities as long as they are exposed to the air.


At the end of any work day when you wore a reusable respirator:

  • Remove the filter or prefilter. Most filters should be discarded. A few are designed to be washed and reused.
  • Take off the cartridges or canisters. Discard them or, if still usable, replace their caps and seal them in an airtight container, such as a zip-closable plastic bag.
  • Clean and store respirator as directed above.
  • Discard disposable respirators according to manufacturer's instructions. Do not try to clean them.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, Air-Purifying

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, Air-Purifying; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

In most situations where pesticide handlers need to use a respirator, some type of air-purifying respirator provides enough protection. Air-purifying respirators will not protect you from fumigants, from extremely high concentrations of vapor, or when the oxygen supply is low.


Functions of air-purifying respirators -- Air-purifying respirators remove contaminants from the air in two ways:

  • filtering dusts and mists, and
  • removing gases and vapors.

Sometimes you will need only a respirator that filters dusts and mists from the air: at other times, will need one that removes gases and vapors as well.

Wear a dust/mist-filtering respirator if the pesticide labeling specifies it or if you will be exposed to pesticide dusts, powders, mists, or sprays in your breathing zone. Wear a respirator that also removes vapors if the pesticide labeling specifies it or if you will be exposed to gases or vapors in your breathing zone.


Styles of air-purifying respirators -- Air-purifying respirators are of three basic styles:

  • dust/mist masks, which usually are shaped filters that cover the nose and mouth to filter out dusts, mists, and particles,
  • devices consisting of a body and one or more cartridges that contains air-purifying materials, and
  • devices consisting of a body and a canister that contains air-purifying materials.


Cartridges may contain either dust/mist-filtering material or vapor-removing material. For pesticide handling tasks where vapor removal is needed, a prefilter must be used with the vapor-removing cartridge. The prefilter removes dusts, mists, and other particles before the air passes through the vapor-removing cartridges. A few vapor-removing cartridges have an attached prefilter, but most are sold separately. Separate prefilters are preferred for use with pesticides, because they often need to be replaced before the vapor-removing cartridge is used up.

Some cartridge-type respirators are one-piece units with cartridges permanently attached to the facepiece. After use, the entire unit is discarded. Other cartridge respirators are two-piece units with removable cartridges and a body that can be cleaned and reused. The dust/mist filtering or vapor-removing cartridges and the prefilters can be replaced when they lose their effectiveness.

A canister contains both dust/mist filtering and vapor-removing material. Canisters contain more air-purifying material than cartridges. They last much longer and may protect you better in situations where the concentration of gas or vapor in the air is high. They are also much heavier and more uncomfortable to wear.

Canister-type respirators are often called gas masks. They usually have the canister connected directly to the facepiece or worn on a belt and connected to the facepiece by a flexible hose. The body is designed to be cleaned and reused. The canisters can be replaced when necessary.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, Air-Supplying

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, Air-Supplying; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Air-supplying respirators are used in a few specialized situations where other types of respirators do not provide adequate protection. Use an air-supplying respirator when it is specified on the pesticide labeling. In addition, you should use one when handling pesticides:

  • when the oxygen supply is low, or
  • during fumigation in enclosed areas, such as greenhouses or other buildings, railcars, ship holds, or grain bins.


Supplied-air respirators -- These respirators pump clean air through a hose to the face mask. You are limited to working within the distance the hose can reach from the supply of clean air.

Self-contained breathing apparatus -- This type of respirator supplies clean air from cylinders that you carry with you, usually on your back. This lets you move more freely and over a wider area than you can with a supplied-air respirator. Get training from competent instructors before using self-contained breathing equipment. These devices contain a limited air supply (usually about 30 to 45 minutes), which may be used up even more quickly in high temperatures or with excessive exertion.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, dust/mist-filtering devices

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, dust/mist-filtering devices; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Dust/mist filtering masks and cartridges are approved by NIOSH and MSHA. You must wear one that has their stamp of approval. Nonapproved filters are not as protective and are not acceptable.

Pesticide handlers must wear dust/mist filtering masks or cartridges with NIOSH/MSHA approval number prefix TC 21C.

Look for a dust/mist mask that is held in place by two straps. One-strap styles are not approved by NIOSH and MSHA because they do not keep the respirator adequately sealed against the face.

When you wear a dust/mist-filter -- either a mask, cartridge, or prefilter -- you will have more trouble breathing as more dusts, mists, and other particles become trapped in the filter material. When breathing becomes too difficult, replace the filter. Eight hours of use is usually the limit for these filters. During continual use, you may need to change filters twice a day, or more often in dusty or dirty conditions. Do not use a dust/mist mask when the pesticide will completely soak the mask and be held close to the skin and breathing passages. Replace the mask if it gets soaked or loses its shape.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, Fitting air-purifying respirators

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, Fitting air-purifying respirators; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Respirators fit wearers in one of two ways. Most must seal tightly to the face; others are loose-fitting.

Face-sealing respirators must form a tight seal against your face to be effective. Otherwise, pesticides can leak in around the edges. People with beards cannot wear this style of respirator because a tight seal cannot be formed through the hair. These respirators must be fitted to each wearer and are not interchangeable among handlers.

Dust/mist masks are face-sealing respirators. They fit over your nose and mouth and have a clip that you press around the bridge of your nose to help form a seal. Most cartridge and canister respirators are also face-sealing respirators. Full-face styles form and keep a tight seal better than half-face styles.

Many pesticide handlers are not being adequately protected while wearing face-sealing cartridge and canister respirators because they often break the seal by pulling the respirator away from their face to get temporary relief from the heat, sweat, itching, or difficult breathing. Once the seal is broken in the exposure area, the respirator's ability to protect you is greatly reduced. Face-sealing cartridge and canister respirators are most useful for short-term tasks.

Your face-sealing respirator should be tested before you wear it in a situation where you may inhale pesticides. There are two types of tests: fit tests and fit checks. They ensure that the respirator is operating correctly and that you are being protected.

Have a fit test before you use your cartridge or canister respirator the first time, and then be retested periodically. Get the fit test through a program approved by NIOSH and OSHA, the agencies that regulate respirator fit testing. Public health departments, fire departments, and Cooperative Extension may be able to tell you where to find an approved fit testing program.

The two main types of fit tests are:

  • testing whether the wearer can detect a test substance by irritation, odor, or taste, and
  • measuring the actual amount of a test substance that gets inside the facepiece.

A fit check is an on-the-spot check that you should do to make sure the respirator is still working correctly. Do a fit check each time you wear a face-sealing respirator.

There are two methods for checking the seal of the facepiece against your face. To check by the first method:

  • close off the inlet of the canister or cartridge (cover it with your palm, replace the caps, or squeeze the breathing tube so that it does not allow air through),
  • inhale gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly, and
  • hold your breath for about 10 seconds.

If the facepiece remains slightly collapsed and no inward leakage is detected, the respirator probably fits tightly enough and will work correctly. This method does not work for dust/mist masks.

The second method for testing the facepiece seal is to close the exhalation valve with your palm and exhale gently into the facepiece. If slight pressure builds up inside the facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage, the respirator probably fits tightly enough and will work correctly. This method is not appropriate for respirators with an exhalation valve cover that would have to be removed first.

Another on-the-spot fit check is the use of a test substance to determine whether you can detect an odor, taste, or irritant. This fit check tests both the facepiece seal and whether a vapor-removing cartridge or canister is still working.

Most test agents are gases or vapors and will not test a dust/mist filtering mask or cartridge. Test agents are available from catalogs and dealers that sell a variety of respirators. If you cannot detect the test agent while you are wearing the respirator, it probably is working correctly.

Loose-fitting respirators are powered air-purifying respirators that constantly pump air through a cartridge or canister into a loose-fitting helmetlike or hoodlike head covering. The positive outward pressure caused by the steady outflow of air prevents contaminants from entering the headpiece. The purified air circulates over the user's head, face, and neck and provides some cooling.

Not all loose-fitting respirators move the air at the same rate. Most pesticide handling tasks require a minimum airflow rate of 4 cubic feet per minute. If you are doing physically strenuous work, use a respirator with an airflow rate of at least 6 cubic feet per minute.

Loose-fitting respirators do not have to form a seal on your face, so people with facial hair can use them safely. They do not require extra lung power and are not nearly as tiring or as hot as face-sealing respirators.

Loose-fitting respirators are much more expensive than face-sealing respirators. In some situations, however, they are the only safe option. For example, you might have to use one if you have facial hair that prevents an adequate seal with the respirator facepiece.

In many situations, loose-fitting respirators are a good choice. For example, you might choose to use one:

  • to avoid the need for fit tests and fit checks,
  • if you will be exposed to pesticides for several hours at a time, or
  • if you are working in situations where heat stress is a concern.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, vapor-removing devices

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators, vapor-removing devices’‘ ‘‘[Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Vapor-removing devices are rated by NIOSH for the types of gases and vapors they will remove. For pesticide handling tasks where vapor protection is needed, NIOSH requires that an organic-vapor-removing material and a pesticide prefilter be used.

Pesticide handlers must use either:

  • a cartridge approved for organic vapor removal plus a prefilter approved for pesticides (NIOSH/MSHA approval number prefix for both is TC 23C), or
  • a canister approved for pesticides (NIOSH/MSHA approval number prefix is 14G).

When you wear a vapor-removing respirator, remember that vapor-removing materials gradually lose their ability to hold more gases and vapors. Their useful life can vary greatly depending on:

  • the amount of particles in the air,
  • the concentration of vapor being filtered,
  • the amount of absorbent material they contain,
  • the breathing rate of the wearer,
  • the temperature and humidity, and stored before use and between uses.
  • the length of time they have been

If you notice an odor, taste, irritation, or dizziness, that is a signal that you are no longer being protected. Some vapor-removing materials have a "service life indicator" to tell you when the material is nearly used up. Other materials will have instructions telling you to replace them after a specific number of hours of use. If there are no instructions about replacement, change the cartridge or canister after about eight hours of use.

Air-delivery systems -- Air-purifying respirators draw air through the filters and vapor-removing materials in one of two ways. Ordinary air-purifying respirators depend on the wearer's lung power to draw air through the purifying material with each breath. Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPR's) assist the wearer by pulling the air through mechanically. Dust/mist masks and most cartridge and canister respirators are nonpowered air-purifying respirators.

If you have a respiratory problem, even a temporary problem such as a cold or allergy, you cannot wear nonpowered cartridge and canister respirators. You need strong lung pressure to draw the air through the purifiers into your lungs. Even persons with normal lung capacity cannot wear these respirators for long periods of time because they tend to be hot, uncomfortable, and exhausting.

Before you use these respirators, have a medical examination to make sure that you do not have a medical condition that would prevent you from using such devices. If you have trouble breathing while you are wearing your respirator even though you have used and cared for it correctly, see your physician to find out whether you have a health problem.

Powered air-purifying respirators use a blower to draw air to the user. PAPR's should not be confused with air-supplying respirators because they do not supply clean air. The air is cleaned by cartridges or canisters, as it is with other air-purifying respirators. These respirators are available as lightweight backpacks, or they may be mounted on or in application equipment where the power is supplied by the vehicle's electrical systems.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respirators; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

There are two basic types of respirators:

  • air-supplying respirators, which supply you with clean, uncontaminated air from an independent source, and
  • air-purifying respirators, which remove contaminants from the air around you.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respiratory Tract

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Respiratory Tract; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The respiratory tract -- the lungs and other parts of the breathing system -- is much more absorbent than the skin. You must wear a respirator when the pesticide labeling directs you to do so. Even if the labeling does not require it, you should consider wearing a respiratory protective device: if you are in an enclosed area and the pesticide you are handling has a labeling precautionary statement such as "do not breathe vapors or spray mist," or "harmful or fatal if inhaled," or if you will be exposed for a long time to pesticides that are in or near your breathing zone.

Some fumigants and a few other pesticide formulations contain an additive that will warn you if you begin to inhale the pesticide. Such warning agents often are used when the active ingredients in the pesticide are highly toxic ones that you would otherwise not be able to detect. The additive may have a characteristic odor or be a mild irritant to alert you that you should put on a respirator or that your respirator is no longer protecting you. The warning agent can help you determine when you should use a respirator for products whose labeling does not require respiratory protection in all situations.

Some pesticide labels list the type of respirator you should wear when handling the product. Other labeling requires the use of a respirator, but does not specify the type or model to be used. NIOSH and MSHA approve respirators as adequate for certain types of uses. When the pesticide labeling requires you to use a respirator, you must wear one that is approved by NIOSH and MSHA. If the respirator has more than one part, all parts must be approved.

Studies have shown that many pesticide handlers do not use respirators correctly and are not well protected. Before you use a respirator, learn the correct procedures for selecting, fitting, cleaning and sanitizing, inspecting, and maintaining respiratory protective equipment.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Reusables

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Reusables; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some personal protective equipment may be cleaned and reused several times; however, do not make the mistake of reusing these items when they are no longer protecting you.

Rubber and plastic suits, gloves, boots, aprons, capes, and headgear often are designed to be cleaned and reused, but even these reusables should be replaced often. Wash them thoroughly between uses. Before you put them on, inspect reused items carefully for signs of wear or abrasion. If they show any sign of wear, throw them out. Even tiny holes or thin places can allow large quantities of pesticides to move to the inside surface and transfer onto your skin. Check for rips and leaks during cleaning by using the rinse water to form a "balloon" or by holding the items up to the light.

Even if you can't see signs of wear, replace reusable chemical-resistant items regularly. The ability of a chemical-resistant material to resist the pesticide decreases each time it is worn, and after repeated exposure to pesticides. Even though the material may not visibly change, the pesticide may be moving through the material and getting on your skin. The pesticide moves through the material in the same way air leaks through the surface of a balloon -- slowly, but steadily.

A good rule of thumb is to throw out gloves that have been worn for about five to seven work days. Extra-heavy-duty gloves, such as those made of butyl or nitrile rubber, may last 10 to 14 days. Because hand protection is the most important concern for pesticide handlers, make glove replacement a high priority. The cost of frequently replacing your gloves is a prudent investment. Footwear, aprons, headgear, and protective suits may last longer than gloves, because they generally receive less exposure to the pesticides and less abrasion from rough surfaces. However, they should be replaced regularly and at any sign of wear.

Fabric coveralls are designed to be cleaned after each day's use and reused. However, absorbent materials such as cotton, polyester, cotton blends, denim, and canvas cannot be cleaned adequately after they are drenched or thoroughly contaminated with concentrated pesticides labeled with the signal word "DANGER" or "WARNING". Always discard any such clothing or footwear. They cannot be safely reused.

Most protective eyewear and respirator bodies, facepieces and helmets are designed to be cleaned and reused. These items may last many years if they are good quality and are maintained correctly.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Shirt, Pants

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Shirt, Pants; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants -- Long-sleeved shirt and long-legged pants should be made of sturdy material. Fasten the shirt collar completely to protect the lower part of your neck.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Skin

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Skin; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The skin is the part of your body that usually gets the most exposure when you handle pesticides. Pay particular attention to covering as much of your skin as possible. Remember that personal protective equipment protects you only if the pesticide remains on the outside of the material. Once the pesticide gets on the inside and next to your skin, the material works against you. It holds the pesticide tightly next to your skin for as long as it is worn. When this happens, more pesticide will get on your skin and cause irritation or will go through your skin and into your body.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Suits and Hoods

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Suits and Hoods; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Chemical-resistant suits and hoods --The best choice of materials for chemical-resistant suits and hoods is generally: rubber or plastic, such as butyl, neoprene, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or non-woven fabric coated with plastic or another barrier material. Read the packaging for the suits carefully to be sure that they are "chemical resistant," "chemical protective," or "liquidproof."




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Washing, Alert

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Washing, Alert; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Alert the persons who do the washing -- Be sure that the people who clean and maintain your personal protective equipment and other work clothes know that they can be harmed by touching the pesticide that remains on the contaminated items. Tell them that they should:

  • wear gloves and an apron, especially if handling contaminated items regularly or handling items contaminated with highly toxic pesticides.
  • work in a well-ventilated area, if possible, and avoid inhaling steam from the washer or dryer.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Washing, Procedure

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Washing, Procedure; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Follow the manufacturer's instructions for cleaning chemical-resistant items. If the manufacturer instructs you to wash the item but gives no detailed instructions, or offers no cleaning instructions at all, follow the procedure below. Some chemical-resistant items that are not flat, such as gloves, footwear, and coveralls, must be washed twice -- once to thoroughly clean the outside of the item and a second time after turning the item inside out. Some chemical-resistant items, such as heavy-duty boots and rigid hats or helmets, can be washed by hand using hot water and a heavy-duty liquid detergent. They should be dried and aired as directed below.

The best procedure for washing non-chemical-resistant items, such as cotton, cotton/polyester, denim, canvas, and other absorbent materials, and most chemical-resistant items is:

1. Rinse in a washing machine or by hand.

2. Wash only a few items at a time so there will be plenty of agitation and water for dilution.

3. Wash in a washing machine, using a heavy-duty liquid detergent and hot water for the wash cycle.

4. Rinse twice using two entire rinse cycles and warm water.

5. Use two entire machine cycles to wash items that are moderately to heavily contaminated.

6. Run the washer through at least one additional entire cycle without clothing, using detergent and hot water, to clean the machine after each batch of pesticide-contaminated items, and before any other laundry is washed.




Equipment, Personal Protective -- Washing

‘‘Equipment, Personal Protective -- Washing; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Wash pesticide-contaminated items separately from uncontaminated clothing and laundry. Otherwise, the pesticide residues can be transferred onto the other clothing or laundry and can harm you or your family.




Exposure

‘‘Exposure; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When a pesticide contacts a surface or organism, that contact is called a pesticide exposure. For humans, a pesticide exposure means getting pesticides in or on the body. The toxic effect of a pesticide exposure depends on how much pesticide is involved and how long it remains there.




Exposure, Acute oral effects

‘‘Exposure, Acute oral effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Your mouth, throat, and stomach can be burned severely by some pesticides. Other pesticides that you swallow will not burn your digestive system, but will be absorbed and carried in your blood throughout your body and may cause you harm in various ways. For some pesticides, swallowing even a few drops from a splash or wiping your mouth with a contaminated glove can make you very ill or make it difficult to eat and drink and get nourishment. Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:




Exposure, Allergic Effects -- Avoiding allergic effects

‘‘Exposure, Allergic Effects -- Avoiding allergic effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Depending on how severe the allergic reaction is, persons with allergies to certain pesticides may have to stop handling or working around those pesticides. They may be unable to tolerate even slight exposures. Sometimes persons with allergies to certain pesticides can continue to work in situations where those pesticides are present by reducing their exposure to them.




Exposure, Allergic Effects -- Types of allergic effects

‘‘Exposure, Allergic Effects -- Types of allergic effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some people are sensitized to certain pesticides. After being exposed once or a few times without effect, they develop a severe allergy-like response upon later exposures. These allergic effects include:

  • systemic effects, such as asthma or even life-threatening shock,
  • skin irritation, such as rash, blisters, or open sores, and
  • eye and nose irritation, such as itchy, watery eyes and sneezing.

Unfortunately, there is no way to tell which people may develop allergies to which pesticides. However, certain people seem to be more chemically sensitive than others. They develop an allergic response to many types of chemicals in their environment. These persons may be more likely to develop allergies to pesticides.

Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:

"This product may produce temporary allergic side effects characterized by redness of the eyes, mild bronchial irritation, and redness or rash on exposed skin areas. Persons having allergic reactions should contact a physician."

"May be a skin sensitizer."

"The active ingredient may cause skin sensitization reactions in certain individuals."




Exposure, Allergic Effects

‘‘Exposure, Allergic Effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Allergic effects are harmful effects that some people develop in reaction to substances that do not cause the same reaction in most other people. Allergic reactions are not thought to occur during a person's first exposure to a substance. The first exposure causes the body to develop repelling response chemicals to that substance. A later (the second, third, or more) exposure results in the allergic response. This process is called sensitization, and substances that cause people to become allergic to them are known as sensitizers.

Certain substances cause many people to develop an allergic reaction. Poison ivy, for example, causes a severe skin rash in many people. Other substances cause allergic reactions in only a few people. Turfgrass, for example, causes a severe skin rash in relatively few people.




Exposure, Avoiding

‘‘Exposure, Avoiding; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Avoiding and reducing exposures to pesticides will reduce the harmful effects from pesticides. You can avoid exposures by using safety systems, such as closed systems and enclosed cabs, and you can reduce exposures by wearing appropriate personal protective equipment, washing exposed areas often, and keeping your personal protective equipment clean and in good operating condition.

In most pesticide handling situations, the skin is the part of the body that is most likely to receive exposure. Evidence indicates that about 97 percent of all body exposure that happens during pesticide spraying is through skin contact. The only time inhalation is a greater hazard than skin contact is when you are working in a poorly ventilated enclosed space and are using a fumigant or other pesticide that is highly toxic by inhalation.

The amount of pesticide absorbed through your skin (and eyes) and into your body depends on:

  • the pesticide itself and the material used to dilute the pesticide. Emulsifiable concentrates, oil-based liquid pesticides, and oil-based diluents (such as xylene) are, in general, absorbed most readily. Water-based pesticides and dilutions (such as wettable and soluble powders and dry flowables) usually are absorbed less readily than the oil-based liquid formulations but more readily than dry formulations. Dusts, granules, and other dry formulations are not absorbed as readily as liquids.
  • the area of the body exposed. The genital area tends to be the most absorptive. The scalp, ear canal, and forehead are also highly absorptive.
  • the condition of the skin exposed. Cuts, abrasions, and skin rashes allow absorption more readily than intact skin. Hot, sweaty skin will absorb more pesticide than dry, cool skin.




Exposure, Causes of

‘‘Exposure, Causes of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

One of the best ways to avoid pesticide exposures is to avoid situations and practices where exposures commonly occur.




Exposure, Causes of -- Dermal

‘‘Exposure, Causes of -- Dermal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Dermal exposures often are caused by:

  • not washing hands after handling pesticides or their containers,
  • splashing or spraying pesticides on unprotected skin or eyes,
  • wearing pesticide-contaminated clothing (including boots and gloves),
  • applying pesticides (or flagging) in windy weather,
  • wearing inadequate personal protective equipment while handling pesticides, and
  • touching pesticide-treated surfaces.




Exposure, Causes of -- Eye

‘‘Exposure, Causes of -- Eye; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Eye exposures often are caused by:

  • splashing or spraying pesticides in eyes,
  • applying pesticides in windy weather without eye protection,
  • rubbing eyes or forehead with contaminated gloves or hands, and
  • pouring dust, granule, or powder formulations without eye protection.




Exposure, Causes of -- Inhalation

‘‘Exposure, Causes of -- Inhalation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Inhalation exposures often are caused by:

  • prolonged contact with pesticides in closed or poorly ventilated spaces,
  • breathing vapors from fumigants and other toxic pesticides,
  • breathing vapors, dust, or mist while handling pesticides without appropriate protective equipment,
  • inhaling vapors immediately after a pesticide is applied; for example, from drift or from reentering the area too soon, and
  • using a respirator that fits poorly or using an old or inadequate filter, cartridge, or canister.




Exposure, Causes of -- Oral

‘‘Exposure, Causes of -- Oral; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Oral exposures often are caused by:

  • not washing hands before eating, drinking, smoking, or chewing,
  • mistaking the pesticide for food or drink,
  • accidentally applying pesticides to food, or
  • splashing pesticide into the mouth through carelessness or accident.




Exposure, Delayed Effects of

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Delayed effects are illnesses or injuries that do not appear immediately (within 24 hours) after exposure to a pesticide or combination of pesticides. Often the term "chronic effects" is used to describe delayed effects, but this term is applicable only to certain types of delayed effects.




Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Avoiding delayed effects

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Avoiding delayed effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Scientists, pesticide manufacturers, and the Environmental Protection Agency cannot yet be sure what the delayed effects of too much exposure to individual pesticides or combinations of pesticides may be. It may be years before there are clear answers on the effects of all the pesticides and combinations of pesticides used today. Meanwhile, it makes good sense to reduce your exposure to all pesticides as much as possible.




Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Causes

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Causes; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Delayed effects may be caused by:

  • repeated exposures to a pesticide, a pesticide group, or a combination of pesticides over a long period of time, or
  • a single exposure to a pesticide (or combination of pesticides) that causes a harmful reaction that does not become apparent until much later.

Some pesticides cause delayed effects only with repeated exposure over a period of days, months, or even years. For example, if a rat eats a large amount of the pesticide cryolite at one time, the pesticide passes through the rat's system quickly and is eliminated without harmful effects. However, if the rat regularly eats small amounts of cryolite, it soon becomes ill and dies. Cryolite does not readily dissolve in water. The small amount of pesticide that is absorbed into the rat's system from a one-time exposure is not enough to cause illness. But if that same small amount is absorbed day after day, enough poison will be absorbed into the rat's system to cause illness and death.

Sometimes repeated exposures to a pesticide or family of pesticides will result in a delayed effect, but a larger exposure will cause an acute effect. Organophosphate and carbamate pesticides inhibit a chemical, called cholinesterase, in the nervous system of humans. A large exposure causes immediate acute illness. Smaller exposures cause no apparent problem at first. They inhibit the cholinesterase, but not enough to cause immediate illness. Small, repeated exposures to these pesticides over several days or weeks may greatly reduce cholinesterase levels in the body. At that point, even a small exposure to a pesticide with relatively low cholinesterase-inhibiting properties may trigger severe illness.

A person who is repeatedly exposed to two or more specific chemicals may become ill even though any one of the chemicals alone would have had no harmful health impact. Some organophosphate pesticides have been shown to have this effect when they are combined.

In some cases, a single exposure to a pesticide (or combination of pesticides) could adversely affect the exposed person's health later. For example, large exposures to paraquat, a herbicide, may cause severe or fatal lung injury that does not appear for 3 to 14 days after the initial exposure. After an exposure, paraquat slowly builds up in the lungs and destroys lung cells.

Some kinds of harmful effects may not occur unless a certain set of circumstances is present. These effects can occur after the first exposure, but the likelihood is small. Continuous or frequent exposures over a long period of time make it more likely that all the necessary factors will be present. Some genetic changes that result in the development of cancer or other delayed effects are in this category.

Types of delayed effects include:

  • chronic effects,
  • developmental and reproductive effects, and
  • systemic effects.




Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Chronic effects

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Chronic effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Chronic effects are illnesses or injuries that appear a long time, usually several years, after exposure to a pesticide. Some delayed effects that are suspected to result from pesticides' chronic toxicity include:

  • production of tumors (oncogenic effect),
  • production of malignancy or cancer (carcinogenic effect),
  • changes in the genes or chromosomes (mutagenic effect).

Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:

"Cancer Hazard Warning Statement: This product contains an ingredient which has been determined to cause tumors in laboratory animals."

"NOTE: This product has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals."

"The use of this product may be hazardous to your health. This

product contains an ingredient which has been determined to cause tumors in laboratory animals."




Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Determining delayed effects

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Determining delayed effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Because of the time delay between the exposure and the observable effect, and because many other types of exposures may have occurred during the delay, it is sometimes hard to identify the cause of a delayed effect. Although some pesticides may cause delayed effects in laboratory animals, further studies are needed to determine whether these pesticides will affect humans the same way.

When there is clear evidence that a pesticide may cause chronic, developmental, reproductive, or systemic effects in humans, the Environmental Protection Agency will determine what steps are appropriate to reduce or eliminate the risk. Such actions include:

  • removing the pesticide from use,
  • requiring label warning statements about the possible effects,
  • requiring specific personal protective equipment or safety systems during handling of the pesticide,
  • requiring changes in dosages, method or frequency of application, and waiting times before entry or harvest/slaughter/grazing,
  • restricting the use to certified applicators.




Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Developmental and reproductive effects

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Developmental and reproductive effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A developmental effect is an injury or illness that occurs to a fetus in the womb of a woman who has been exposed to a pesticide(s). These effects include:

  • birth defects (teratogenic effect), and
  • illness or death (miscarriage or stillbirth) of a fetus (fetotoxic effect).

A reproductive effect is an injury to the reproductive system of exposed men or women. These effects include:

  • infertility or sterility in men or women, and
  • impotence in men.

Some developmental or reproductive effects are thought to occur immediately after exposure to a pesticide or combination of pesticides, but they may not be apparent for some time after the exposure. For example, a birth defect may be seen only after the birth of a child, which may be several months after the exposure. Other developmental or reproductive effects are thought to result from repeated exposures to a pesticide or combination of pesticides over a period of time.

A typical precautionary statement on pesticide labeling is:

"This product may be hazardous to your health. This product has been determined to cause birth defects in laboratory animals."




Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Systemic effects

‘‘Exposure, Delayed Effects of -- Systemic effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A delayed systemic effect is an illness or injury to a system in the body that does not appear immediately (within 24 hours) after exposure to a pesticide or combination of pesticides. Such effects include:

  • blood disorders (hemotoxic effects), such as anemia or an inability to coagulate,
  • nerve or brain disorders (neurotoxic effects), such as paralysis, nervous excitation, behavioral changes, tremor, blindness, and brain damage,
  • skin disorders, such as rash, irritation, discoloration, and ulceration,
  • lung and respiratory disorders, such as emphysema and asthma,
  • liver and kidney disorders, such as jaundice and kidney failure.

Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:

"May produce kidney and liver damage upon prolonged exposure."

"Inhalation may cause delayed lung, nerve, or brain injury."

"Liquid or vapor may cause serious skin or eye injury which may have a delayed onset."




Exposure, Effects -- Acute

‘‘Exposure, Effects -- Acute; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Acute effects are illnesses or injuries that may appear immediately after exposure to a pesticide (usually within 24 hours). Studying a pesticide's relative ability to cause acute effects has been the main way to assess and compare how toxic pesticides are. Acute effects can be measured more accurately than delayed effects, and they are more easily diagnosed than effects that do not appear until long after the exposure. Acute effects usually are obvious and often are reversible if appropriate medical care is given promptly.

Pesticides cause four types of acute effects:

  • acute oral effects,
  • acute inhalation effects,
  • acute dermal effects,
  • acute eye effects.




Exposure, Effects -- Acute Effects Statements

‘‘Exposure, Effects -- Acute Effects Statements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The label or labeling will contain statements that indicate which route of entry (mouth, skin, eyes, lungs) you must particularly protect and what specific action you need to take to avoid acute effects from pesticide exposure. These statements may be on the front or side panel of the label, or they may be somewhere else in the labeling. The statements will warn you if you may be harmed by swallowing or inhaling the product or getting it on your skin or in your eyes.

Many pesticides can cause acute effects by more than one route, so study these statements carefully. These precautionary statements tell you what parts of your body will need the most protection. "DANGER: Fatal if swallowed or inhaled" gives a far different indication than "DANGER: Corrosive -- causes eye damage and severe skin burns."





Exposure, Effects -- ACUTE ORAL

‘‘Exposure, Effects -- ACUTE ORAL; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Highly Toxic

"Fatal if swallowed," or "Can kill you if swallowed."

Moderately Toxic

"Harmful or fatal if swallowed," or "May be fatal if swallowed."

Slightly Toxic

"Harmful if swallowed." or "May be harmful if swallowed."




Exposure, Effects of

‘‘Exposure, Effects of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides can cause three types of harmful effects: acute effects, delayed effects, and allergic effects.




Exposure, Effects of -- ACUTE DERMAL

‘‘Exposure, Effects of -- ACUTE DERMAL; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Contact with some pesticides will harm your skin. These pesticides may cause your skin to itch, blister, crack, or change color. Other pesticides can pass through your skin and eyes and get into your body. Once inside your body, these pesticides are carried throughout your system where they can harm you. Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:

Highly Toxic

"Fatal if absorbed through the skin," or "Can kill you by skin contact," combined with the statement "do not get on skin or clothing."

Moderately Toxic

"Harmful or fatal if absorbed through the skin," or "May be fatal by skin contact," followed by a statement such as "Do not get on skin or clothing."

Slightly Toxic

"Harmful if absorbed through the skin," or "May be harmful by skin contact," combined with the statement "Avoid contact with skin or clothing."




Exposure, Effects of -- ACUTE INHALATION

‘‘Exposure, Effects of -- ACUTE INHALATION; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Your entire respiratory system can be burned by some pesticides, making it difficult to breathe. Other pesticides that you may inhale may not harm your respiratory system, but are carried quickly in your blood throughout your whole body where they can harm you. Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:

Highly Toxic

"Poisonous if inhaled," or "Can kill you if breathed," combined with the statement "Do not breathe dusts, vapors, or spray mists."

Moderately Toxic

"Harmful or fatal if inhaled," or "May be fatal if breathed," followed by a statement such as "Do not breathe dusts, vapors, or spray mist."

Slightly Toxic

"Harmful if inhaled," or May be harmful if breathed," combined with the statement "Avoid breathing dusts, vapors, or spray mist."




Exposure, Effects of -- EYE IRRITATION

‘‘Exposure, Effects of -- EYE IRRITATION; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticides that get into your eyes can cause temporary or permanent blindness or severe irritation. Other pesticides may not irritate your eyes, but pass through your eyes and into your body. These pesticides can travel throughout your body, harming you. Typical precautionary statements on pesticide labeling include:

Highly Toxic

"Corrosive -- causes irreversible eye damage," or " Causes severe eye burns or blindness," combined with the statement "Do not get in eyes."

Moderately Toxic

"Causes eye irritation," or "Causes eye burns," followed by a statement such as "Do not get in eyes."

Slightly Toxic

"May irritate eyes," combined with the statement "Avoid contact with eyes."




Exposure, Effects of -- SKIN IRRITATION

‘‘Exposure, Effects of -- SKIN IRRITATION; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Highly Toxic

"Corrosive -- causes severe skin burns," combined with the statement "Do not get on skin."

Moderately Toxic

"Causes skin irritation," or "Causes skin burns," followed by a statement such as "Do not get on skin."

Slightly Toxic

"May irritate skin," combined with the statement "Avoid contact with skin."




Exposure, Heat Cramps

‘‘Exposure, Heat Cramps; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Heat cramps can be quite painful. These muscle spasms in the legs, arms, or stomach are caused by loss of body salt through heavy sweating. To relieve cramps, have the victim drink lightly salted water or "sports drinks." Stretching or kneading the muscles may temporarily relieve the cramps. However, if you suspect that stomach cramps are being caused by pesticides rather than heavy sweating, get medical help right away.




Exposure, Heat Stress

‘‘Exposure, Heat Stress; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Heat stress is the illness that occurs when your body is subjected to more heat than it can cope with. Heat stress is not caused by exposure to pesticides, but may affect pesticide handlers who are working in hot conditions. Personal protective equipment worn during pesticide handling activities can increase the risk of heat stress by limiting your body's ability to cool down. If you are under a physician's care, you should consult your physician before working in hot conditions.




Exposure, Heat Stress -- First Aid for

‘‘Exposure, Heat Stress -- First Aid for; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

It is not always easy to tell the difference between heat stress illness and pesticide poisoning. The signs and symptoms are similar. Don't waste time trying to decide what is causing the illness. Get medical help.

First aid measures for heat stress victims are similar to those for persons who are overexposed to pesticides:

  • Get the victim into a shaded or cool area.
  • Cool victim as rapidly as possible by sponging or splashing skin, especially face, neck, hands, and forearms, with cool water or, when possible, immersing in cool water.
  • Carefully remove all personal protective equipment and any other clothing that may be making the victim too warm.
  • Have the victim, if conscious, drink as much cool water as possible.
  • Keep the victim quiet until help arrives.

Severe heat stress or heat stroke is a medical emergency! Brain damage and death may result if treatment is delayed.




Exposure, Heat Stress -- Signs and Symptoms of

‘‘Exposure, Heat Stress -- Signs and Symptoms of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Mild forms of heat stress will make you feel ill and impair your ability to do a good job. You may get tired sooner, feel weak, be less alert, and be less able to use good judgment. Severe heat stress is a serious illness. Unless victims are cooled down quickly, they can die. Severe heat stress is fatal to more than 10 percent of its victims, even young, healthy adults. Many who survive suffer permanent damage. Sometimes the victims remain highly sensitive to heat for months and are unable to return to the same work.

Learn the signs and symptoms of heat stress and take immediate action to cool down if you suspect you may be suffering from even mild heat stress. Signs and symptoms may include:

  • fatigue (exhaustion, muscle weakness),
  • headache, nausea, and chills,
  • dizziness and fainting,
  • severe thirst and dry mouth,
  • clammy skin or hot, dry skin,
  • heavy sweating or complete lack of sweating,
  • altered behavior (confusion, slurred speech, quarrelsome or irrational attitude).




Exposure, Law 1

‘‘Exposure, Law 1; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), administered by the U.S. Department of Labor, contains some requirements that could affect you if you or one of your employees is involved in a pesticide-related injury or illness.

Employers must keep records of all work-related deaths, injuries, and illnesses and make periodic reports. Minor injuries needing only first aid treatment need not be reported. You must keep records if the injury involved medical treatment, loss of consciousness, restriction of work or motion, or transfer to another job.

OSHA will investigate employee complaints related to exposure to hazardous materials, such as pesticides.




Exposure, Law 2

‘‘Exposure, Law 2; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS), a regulation under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), requires employers to provide protections to workers who may be exposed to hazardous chemicals under normal operating conditions or in foreseeable emergencies. The HCS, which is administered by the U.S. Department of Labor, requires employers to:

  • make a list of the hazardous chemicals in the workplace,
  • obtain material safety data sheets (MSDS) for all hazardous substances on their list,
  • ensure that all containers of
  • hazardous materials are labeled at all times,
  • train all workers about the hazardous materials in their workplace, and
  • keep a file (including the MSDS's) on the hazardous chemicals, and make it available to workers.




Exposure, Response

‘‘Exposure, Response; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Get medical advice quickly if you or any of your fellow workers have unusual or unexplained symptoms starting at work or later the same day. Do not let yourself or anyone else get dangerously sick before calling your physician or going to a hospital. It is better to be too cautious than too late. Take the pesticide container (or the labeling) to the physician. Do not carry the pesticide container in the passenger space of a car or truck.




Exposure, Response -- Do not induce vomiting if

‘‘Exposure, Response -- Do not induce vomiting if; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • the victim is unconscious or is having convulsions.
  • the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison. A corrosive poison is a strong acid or alkali. It will burn the throat and mouth as severely coming up as it did going down. It may get into the lungs and burn there also.
  • the victim has swallowed an emulsifiable concentrate or oil solution. Emulsifiable concentrates and oil solutions may cause death if inhaled during vomiting.




Exposure, Response -- First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning

‘‘Exposure, Response -- First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

First aid is the initial effort to help a victim while medical help is on the way. If you are alone with the victim, make sure the victim is breathing and is not being further exposed to the pesticide before you call for emergency help. Apply artificial respiration if the victim is not breathing. Do not become exposed to the pesticide yourself while you are trying to help.

In an emergency, look at the pesticide labeling, if possible. If it gives specific first aid instructions, follow those instructions carefully. If labeling instructions are not available, follow these general guidelines for first aid:

The best first aid in pesticide emergencies is to stop the source of pesticide exposure as quickly as possible.




Exposure, Response -- Inhaled pesticide

‘‘Exposure, Response -- Inhaled pesticide; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • Get victim to fresh air immediately.
  • If other people are in or near the area, warn them of the danger.
  • Loosen tight clothing on victim that would constrict breathing.
  • Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or if the victim's skin is blue. If pesticide or vomit is on the victim's mouth or face, avoid direct contact and use a shaped airway tube, if available, for mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.




Exposure, Response -- Pesticide in eye

‘‘Exposure, Response -- Pesticide in eye; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • Wash eye quickly but gently.
  • Use an eyewash dispenser, if available. Otherwise, hold eyelid open and wash with a gentle drip of clean running water positioned so that it flows across the eye rather than directly into the eye.
  • Rinse eye for 15 minutes or more.
  • Do not use chemicals or drugs in the rinse water. They may increase the injury.




Exposure, Response -- Pesticide in mouth or swallowed

‘‘Exposure, Response -- Pesticide in mouth or swallowed; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • Rinse mouth with plenty of water.
  • Give victim large amounts (up to 1 quart) of milk or water to drink.
  • Induce vomiting only if instructions to do so are on the labeling.
  • Procedure for inducing vomiting:
  • Position victim face down or kneeling forward. Do not allow victim to lie on his back, because the vomit could enter the lungs and do additional damage.
  • Put finger or the blunt end of a spoon at the back of victim's throat or give syrup of ipecac.
  • Do not use salt solutions to induce vomiting.




Exposure, Response -- Pesticide on skin

‘‘Exposure, Response -- Pesticide on skin; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • Drench skin and clothing with plenty of water. Any source of relatively clean water will work. If possible, immerse the person in a pond, creek, or other body of water. Even water in ditches or irrigation sys- tems will do, unless you think they may have pesticides in them.
  • Remove personal protective equipment and contaminated clothing.
  • Wash skin and hair thoroughly with a mild liquid detergent and water. If one is available, a shower is the best way to completely and thoroughly wash and rinse the entire body surface.
  • Dry victim and wrap in blanket or any clean clothing at hand. Do not allow to become chilled or overheated.
  • If skin is burned or otherwise injured, cover immediately with loose, clean, dry, soft cloth or bandage.
  • Do not apply ointments, greases, powders, or other drugs in first aid treatment of burns or injured skin.




Exposure, Signs and Symptoms of Harmful Effects

‘‘Exposure, Signs and Symptoms of Harmful Effects; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Watch for two kinds of clues to pesticide-related illness or injury. Some clues are feelings that only the person who has been poisoned can notice, such as nausea or headache. These are symptoms. Other clues, like vomiting or fainting, can be noticed by someone else. These are signs.

You should know:

  • what your own symptoms might mean, and
  • what signs of poisoning to look for in your coworkers and others who may have been exposed.

Many of the signs and symptoms of pesticide poisoning are similar to signs and symptoms of other illnesses you might experience, such as the flu or even a hangover. If you have been working with pesticides and then develop suspicious signs and symptoms, call your physician or poison control center. Only a physician can diagnose pesticide poisoning injuries.




Exposure, Signs of irritation

‘‘Exposure, Signs of irritation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • redness, blisters, rash, and/or burns on skin, and
  • swelling, a stinging sensation, and/or burns in eyes, nose, mouth, and throat.




Exposure, Signs of poisoning

‘‘Exposure, Signs of poisoning; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

  • nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and/or stomach cramps,
  • headache, dizziness, weakness, and/or confusion,
  • excessive sweating, chills, and/or thirst,
  • chest pains,
  • difficult breathing,
  • cramps in your muscles or aches all over your body.


Poisoning by some pesticide chemical families results in distinctive signs that help others to recognize the cause of the poisoning. Organophosphate and n-methyl carbamate poisoning, for example, is often identified by the presence of very small (pinpoint) pupils in the victim's eyes. Poisoning by pesticides containing arsenic or phosphorus is often identified by a garlic odor on the victim's breath.

Ask your physician or poison control center to obtain the latest edition of "Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings" by Donald P. Morgan, M.D., Ph.D. It is available through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency or from the U.S. Government Printing Office. Many physicians have not been trained to recognize and treat pesticide poisonings or injury and may rarely see such cases.


Be informed -- You should know the kinds of harmful effects most likely to be caused by the pesticides you use. The appendix, Effects of Pesticides on the Human Body, contains a guide to help you judge how the products you use might affect you. The chart lists the major groups of pesticides. For each group, it tells:

  • the action of the poison on the human system,
  • acute poisoning (systemic) effects,
  • acute irritation effects,
  • delayed or allergic effects, and
  • type of pesticide.




Exposure, Toxicity

‘‘Exposure, Toxicity; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Toxicity is a measure of the ability of a pesticide to cause harmful effects. Toxicity depends on:

  • type and amount of active ingredient(s),
  • type and amount of carrier or solvent ingredient(s),
  • type and amount of inert ingredient(s), and
  • type of formulation, such as dust, granule, powder, or emulsifiable concentrate.

The toxicity of a particular pesticide is measured by subjecting laboratory animals (usually rats, mice, rabbits, and dogs) or tissue cultures to different dosages of the active ingredient and of the formulated product over various times. These toxicity studies help to estimate the risk that the pesticide may cause harmful effects in humans. However, some people react more severely or more mildly than estimated. Be alert to your body's reaction to the pesticides you are handling. Some people seem to be especially sensitive to individual pesticides or to groups of similar pesticides.

You may have a choice of pesticides for a particular pest problem. Consider how toxic each pesticide is to persons who will use it or be exposed to it.




Exposure, Types of

‘‘Exposure, Types of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides contact your body in four main ways:

  • oral exposure (when you swallow a pesticide),
  • inhalation exposure (when you inhale a pesticide),
  • ocular exposure (when you get a pesticide in your eyes), or
  • dermal exposure (when you get a pesticide on your skin).




Field scouting, pest forecasts, and thresholds

‘‘Field scouting, pest forecasts, and thresholds; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

A principle of IPM is that pesticides should be used only when field examination or scouting shows that infestations exceed economic thresholds, guidelines that differentiate economically insignificant infestations from intolerable populations (fig 2 -6). Pest scouting generally should be random and representative. In figure 2 -6,the IPM scout used an understanding of pest biology to divide a large and variable wheat field into three subsections.

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The only time to take control action and apply pesticides is when pest density reaches the economic threshold (ET)value. Pesticide application here keeps infestations from increasing to the breakeven economic injury level (EIL) value. The shaded part of the pest population curve in figure 2 -7 shows actual pest density while the dotted curve shows a pest population increase in the absence of control.

<I file="graphics\fig2_7.jpg"></H>



Formulations -- EPA

‘‘Formulations -- EPA; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The active ingredients in a pesticide are the chemicals that control the target pest. Most pesticide products also have other ingredients, called inert (inactive) ingredients. They are used to dilute the pesticide or to make it safer, more effective, easier to measure, mix, and apply, and more convenient to handle.

Usually the pesticide is diluted in water, a petroleum-based solvent, or another diluent.Other chemicals in the product may include wetting agents, spreaders, stickers, or extenders. This mixture of active and inert ingredients is called a pesticide formulation.

Some formulations are ready for use. Others must be further diluted with water, a petroleum-based solvent, or air (as in airblast or ULV applications) by the user before they are applied.

A single active ingredient often is sold in several formulations. If you find that more than one formulation is available for your pest control situation, you must choose the best one for the job. Before you choose, ask yourself several questions about each formulation. For example:

  • Do you have the necessary application equipment?
  • Can the formulation be applied safely under the conditions in the application area?
  • Will the formulation reach your target and stay in place long enough to control the pest?
  • Is the formulation likely to harm the surface to which you will apply it?

To answer these kinds of questions, you need to know something about the characteristics of different types of formulations and the general advantages and disadvantages of each type.




Formulations -- NRCS

‘‘Formulations -- NRCS; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Most end-use pesticide products are not 100 percent active ingredients. Typically, they are diluted with water, oil, air, or chemically inactive (inert) solids so they can be handled by application equipment and spread evenly over the area to be treated. Because the

basic chemical generally cannot be added directly to water or mixed in the field with solids, manufacturers must further modify their products by combining them

with other material, such as solvents, wetting agents, stickers, powders, or granules. The final product is called a pesticide formulation and is ready either for use as packaged or after being diluted with water or other carriers. Formulation types are:

WP wettable powder

S solutions

F flowable

G granules or granular

D dusts

SP soluble powder

EC emulsifiable concentrate

Adjuvants are chemicals that are added to a pesticide formulation or spray mixture to improve performance and/or safety. Most pesticide formulations contain at least a small percentage of one or more adjuvants.

  • Wetting agents allow wettable powders to mix with water.
  • Emulsifiers allow petroleum-based pesticides (ECs) to mix with water.
  • Invert emulsifiers allow water-based pesticides to mix with petroleum carrier.
  • Spreaders allow pesticide to form a uniform coating layer over the treated surface.
  • Stickers allow pesticide to stay on the treated surface for a longer time without being dislodged.
  • Penetrants allow the pesticide to get through the outer surface to the inside of the treated target.
  • Foaming agents reduce drift.
  • Thickeners reduce drift by increasing droplet size.
  • Safeners reduce the toxicity of a pesticide formulation to the pesticide handler or to the treated surface.
  • Compatibility agents aid in combining pesticides effectively.
  • Buffers allow pesticides to be mixed with diluents or other pesticides of different acidity or alkalinity.
  • Antifoaming agents reduce foaming or spray mixtures that require vigorous agitation.




Front-Panel Precautionary Statements

‘‘Front-Panel Precautionary Statements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘


Signal words and symbols -- The signal words -- DANGER, WARNING, or CAUTION -- must appear in large letters on the front panel of the pesticide label. It indicates how acutely toxic the product is to humans. The signal word is immediately below the statement, "Keep out of reach of children," which also must appear on every label.

The signal word is based not on the active ingredient alone, but on the contents of the formulated product. It reflects the hazard of any active ingredients, carriers, solvents, or inert ingredients. The signal word indicates the risk of acute effects from the four routes of exposure to a pesticide product (oral, dermal, inhalation, and eye) and is based on the one that is greatest. The signal word does not indicate the risk of delayed effects or allergic effects.

Use the signal word to help you decide what precautionary measures are needed for you, your workers, and other persons (or animals) who may be exposed.




Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, CAUTION

‘‘Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, CAUTION; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

This word signals you that the product is slightly toxic or relatively nontoxic. The product has only slight potential to cause acute illness from oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure. The skin or eye irritation it would cause, if any, is likely to be slight.




Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, DANGER

‘‘Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, DANGER; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

This word signals you that the pesticide is highly toxic. The product is very likely to cause acute illness from oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure, or to cause severe eye or skin irritation.




Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, POISON/SKULL AND CROSSBONES

‘‘Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, POISON/SKULL AND CROSSBONES; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

All highly toxic pesticides that are likely to cause acute illness through oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure also will carry the word POISON printed in red and the skull and crossbones symbol. Products that have the signal word DANGER due to skin and eye irritation potential will not carry the word POISON or the skull and crossbones symbol.




Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, WARNING

‘‘Front-Panel Precautionary Statements, WARNING; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

This word signals you that the product is moderately likely to cause acute illness from oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure or that the product is likely to cause moderate skin or eye irritation.




Fumigants

‘‘Fumigants; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘


Fumigants are pesticides that form poisonous gases when applied. Some active ingredients are liquids when packaged under high pressure but change to gases when they are released. Other active ingredients are volatile liquids when enclosed in an ordinary container and so are not formulated under pressure. Others are solids that release gases when applied under conditions of high humidity or in the presence of water vapor. Fumigants are used for structural pest control, in food and grain storage facilities, and in regulatory pest control at ports of entry and at State and national borders. In agricultural pest control, fumigants are used in soil and in greenhouses, granaries, and grain bins.


Advantages:

  • Toxic to a wide range of pests
  • Can penetrate cracks, crevices, wood, and tightly packed areas such as soil or grains
  • Single treatment usually will kill most pests in treated area


Disadvantages:

  • The target site must be enclosed or covered to prevent the gas from escaping
  • Highly toxic to humans and all other living organisms
  • Require the use of specialized protective equipment, including respirators
  • Require the use of specialized application equipment




Ground Water Contamination, Geology

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Geology; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The distance from the soil surface to the water table is the measure of how deep the ground water is in a given location. If the ground water is within a few feet of the soil surface, pesticides are more likely to reach it than if it is farther down. In humid areas, the water table may be only a few feet below the soil surface. In arid areas, the water table may lie several hundred feet below the soil surface. The depth to the water table does not stay the same over the course of the year. It varies according to:

  • the amount of rain, snow, and irrigation water being added to the soil surface,
  • the amount of evaporation and plant uptake,
  • whether the ground is frozen, and
  • how much ground water is being withdrawn by pumping.

The Soil Conservation Service can provide you with valuable information on the geology of an area and on the potential for ground water contamination on your property.

The water table generally is closest to the soil surface in spring and fall. The water table often moves downward during the summer when evaporation and plant uptake are high and irrigation is used. The water table also moves downward in winter if surface water cannot move down through the frozen soil to recharge the ground water.

The permeability of geological layers between the soil and ground water is also important. If surface water can move down quickly, pesticides are more likely to reach ground water. Gravel deposits are highly permeable. They allow water and any pesticides in it to move rapidly downward to ground water. Regions with limestone deposits are particularly susceptible to ground water contamination, because water may move rapidly to the ground water through caverns or "rivers" with little filtration or chemical breakdown. On the other hand, layers of clay may be totally impermeable and may prevent most water and any pesticides in it from reaching the ground water.

Sinkholes are especially troublesome. Surface water often flows into sinkholes and disappears quickly into the ground water. If a pesticide is released into an area that drains to a sinkhole, even a moderate rain or irrigation may carry some of the pesticide directly to the ground water.




Ground Water Contamination, Pesticide Factors

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Pesticide Factors; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticides are more likely than others to move to ground water. Such movement depends mainly on:

  • solubility -- Some pesticides dissolve easily in water and are more likely to move into water systems.
  • adsorption -- Some pesticides become tightly attached (strongly adsorbed) to soil particles and are not likely to move out of the soil and into water systems.
  • persistence -- Some pesticides break down slowly and remain in the environment for a long time.

These factors are all related to one another. Pesticides most likely to move into ground water are highly soluble, moderately to highly persistent, and are not strongly adsorbed to soil. A nonpersistent pesticide would be less likely to move to ground water, even if it is highly soluble or not strongly adsorbed to soil. A pesticide that is strongly adsorbed to soil would be less likely to move to ground water even if it is persistent.

Pesticide labeling usually does not tell you about these properties of the pesticide product. The Soil Conservation Service, Cooperative Extension Service, your trade association, or your pesticide dealer may have specific information about the characteristics of the pesticides you are using.




Ground Water Contamination, Practices for Pesticide Users

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Practices for Pesticide Users; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The best way to keep from contaminating ground water is to follow labeling directions exactly. Be sure to note whether the labeling requires you to take any special steps to protect ground water. In addition, remember the following:

  • Avoid the temptation to use more pesticide than the labeling directs. Overdosing will increase both the cost of pest control and the odds that the pesticide will reach ground water. Overdosing is also illegal. Keeping the use of pesticides to a minimum greatly reduces the risk of ground water contamination.
  • Consider whether your application method presents any special risks. For example, soil injection of some pesticides may not be wise when ground water is close to the surface.
  • Take precautions to keep pesticides from back-siphoning into your water source.
  • Locate pesticide storage facilities at least 100 feet from wells, springs, sinkholes, and other sites that directly link to ground water to prevent their contamination from runoff or firefighting water.
  • Whenever possible, locate mix-load sites and equipment-cleaning sites at least 100 feet from surface water or from direct links to ground water. This will help prevent back-siphoning, runoff, and spills from contaminating the water sources. If you must locate one of these work sites near a water source, use methods such as dikes, sump pits, and containment pads to keep pesticides from reaching the water.
  • Do not contaminate ground water through improper disposal of unused pesticides, pesticide containers, or equipment and container rinse water. Dispose of all pesticide wastes in accordance with local, state, tribal, and federal laws.




Ground Water Contamination, Soil Factors

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Soil Factors; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Soil is also an important factor in the breakdown and movement of pesticides. Your local Soil Conservation Service can help you determine the types of soil in your area and how they affect breakdown and movement. The three major soil characteristics that affect pesticides are texture, permeability, and organic matter.

Soil texture is an indication of the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Coarse, sandy soils generally allow water to carry the pesticides rapidly downward. Finer textured soils generally allow water to move at much slower rates. They contain more clay, and sometimes organic matter, to which pesticides may cling.

Soil permeability is a general measure of how fast water can move downward in a particular soil. The more permeable soils must be managed carefully to keep pesticides from reaching ground water.

Soil organic matter influences how much water the soil can hold before it begins to move downward. Soil containing organic matter has greater ability to stop the movement of pesticides. Soils in which plants are growing are more likely to prevent pesticide movement than bare soils.




Ground Water Contamination, The Certified Applicator's Role

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, The Certified Applicator's Role; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticides or certain uses of some pesticides may be classified as restricted use because of ground water concerns. As a certified applicator, you have a special responsibility to handle all pesticides safely in and near use sites where ground water contamination is particularly likely. Take extra precautions when using techniques that are known to be likely to cause contamination of ground water, such as chemigation and soil injection.

When a pesticide product has been found in ground water or has characteristics that may pose a threat of contamination of ground water, the pesticide product labeling may contain statements to alert you to the concern. Typical pesticide labeling statements include:

"This chemical has been identified in limited ground water sampling and there is the possibility that it can leach through the soil to ground water, especially where soils are coarse and ground water is near the surface."

"This product is readily decomposed into harmless residues under most use conditions. However, a combination of permeable and acidic soil conditions, moderate to heavy irrigation and/or rainfall, use of 20 or more pounds per acre, and soil temperature below 50oF (10oC) at application time tend to reduce degradation and promote movement of residues to ground water. If the above describes your local use conditions and ground water in your area is used for drinking, do not use this product without first contacting (registrant's name and telephone number)."




Ground Water Contamination, Water on the Treated Surface -- Irrigation

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Water on the Treated Surface -- Irrigation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide movement into ground water is affected by both the amount of water used in irrigation and how soon before or after a pesticide application the irrigation is done. If irrigation water contains pesticides, be careful to prevent it from flowing into water sources.




Ground Water Contamination, Water on the Treated Surface -- Rain

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Water on the Treated Surface -- Rain; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If weather forecasts or your knowledge of local weather signs cause you to expect heavy rain, delay outdoor handling operations -- including mixing and loading, application, and disposal -- to prevent wash-off, surface runoff, or leaching.




Ground Water Contamination, Water on the Treated Surface

‘‘Ground Water Contamination, Water on the Treated Surface; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If there is more water on the soil than the soil can hold, the water (along with any pesticides it contains) is likely to move downward to the ground water. Prolonged heavy rain or excessive irrigation will produce excess water on the soil surface.




Ground Water, Protection

‘‘Ground Water, Protection; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Ground water is water located beneath the earth's surface. Many people think that ground water occurs in vast underground lakes, rivers, or streams. Usually, however, it is located in rock and soil. It moves slowly through irregular spaces within otherwise solid rock or seeps between particles of sand, clay, and gravel. An exception is in limestone areas, where ground water may flow through large underground channels or caverns. Surface water may move several feet in a second or a minute. Ground water may move only a few feet in a month or a year. If the ground water is capable of providing significant quantities of water to a well or spring, it is called an aquifer. Pesticide contamination of aquifers is very troubling because these are sources of drinking, washing, and irrigation water.




Ground Water, Sources of

‘‘Ground Water, Sources of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Ground water is recharged (replaced) mostly from rain or snow that enters the soil. However, some water from lakes and streams and from irrigation also becomes ground water. Water that is above the ground can move in three ways: 1) it can evaporate into the air; 2) it can move across the surface, as in a stream or river; or, 3) it can move down from the surface. Some water that moves downward is absorbed by plants and other organisms. Another portion of this water is held in the upper soil layers. The rest moves down through the root zone and the relatively dry soil zone until it reaches a zone saturated with water. This saturated zone is the uppermost layer of ground water and is called the water table. The water table is the "dividing line" between the ground water and the unsaturated rock or soil above it.

Pesticide Contamination of Ground Water

When water that is moving downward from the surface contains pesticides -- or comes into contact with them as it moves -- the pesticides may be carried along with the water until they eventually reach the ground water. Five major factors determine whether a pesticide will reach ground water:

  • the practices followed by pesticide users,
  • the presence or absence of water on the surface of the site where the pesticides are released,
  • the chemical characteristics of the pesticides,
  • the type of soil in the site where the pesticides are released,
  • the location of the ground water -- its distance from the surface and the type of geological formations above it.

By being aware of these considerations, you can handle pesticides in ways that will make the potential for ground water contamination less likely.




Harmful Effects and Emergency Response

‘‘Harmful Effects and Emergency Response; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Most pesticides are designed to harm or kill pests. Because some pests have systems similar to the human system, some pesticides also can harm or kill humans. Fortunately, humans usually can avoid harmful effects by avoiding being exposed to pesticides.

Humans may be harmed by pesticides in two ways: they may be poisoned or injured. Pesticide poisoning is caused by pesticides that harm internal organs or other systems inside the body. Pesticide-related injuries usually are caused by pesticides that are external irritants.

Pesticides that are chemically similar to one another cause the same type of harmful effects to humans. These effects may be mild or severe, depending on the pesticide involved and the amount of overexposure. But the pattern of illness or injury caused by each chemical group is usually the same. Some pesticide chemical families can cause both external irritation injuries and internal poisoning illnesses.

Some pesticides are highly toxic to humans; only a few drops in the mouth or on the skin can cause extremely harmful effects. Other pesticides are less toxic, but too much exposure to them also will cause harmful effects. A good equation to remember is:

Hazard = Toxicity x Exposure

Hazard is the risk of harmful effects from pesticides. Hazard depends on both the toxicity of the pesticide and your exposure.




Harmful Effects from Direct Contact

‘‘Harmful Effects from Direct Contact; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides may harm nontarget organisms present during application. Poorly timed applications can kill bees and other pollinators in or near the target site. Pesticides may harm other wildlife, too. Even tiny amounts of some pesticides may harm them or destroy their food source. Pesticides applied over large areas, such as in mosquito, biting fly, and forest pest control, must be chosen with great care to avoid poisoning nontarget plants and animals in or near the target site. Read the warnings and directions on the pesticide labeling carefully to avoid harming nontarget organisms during a pesticide application.

Drift from the target site may injure wildlife, livestock, pets, sensitive plants, and people. For example, herbicide drift can damage sensitive nearby plants, including crops, forests, or ornamental plantings. Drift also can kill beneficial parasites and predators near the target site.

Pesticide runoff may harm fish and other aquatic animals and plants in ponds, streams, and lakes. Aquatic life also can be harmed by careless tank filling or draining and by rinsing or discarding used containers along or in waterways.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Phytotoxic. Do not spray on plants."

"Do not apply this product or allow it to drift to blooming crops or weeds if bees are visiting the treatment area."

"Extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. Do not contaminate water by cleaning of equipment or disposal of wastes."

"This product is toxic to fish, shrimp, crab, birds, and other wildlife. Keep out of lakes, streams, ponds, tidal marshes, and estuaries. Shrimp and crab may be killed at application rates. Do not apply where these are important resources."




Harmful Effects from Residues

‘‘Harmful Effects from Residues; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A residue is the part of a pesticide remaining in the environment after an application or spill. Pesticides usually break down into harmless components after they are released into an environment. The breakdown time ranges from less than a day to several years. The rate of pesticide breakdown depends mostly on the chemical structure of the active ingredient in the pesticide. The rate of breakdown also may be affected by environmental conditions at the release site, such as:

  • surface type, chemical composition, and pH,
  • surface moisture,
  • presence of microorganisms,
  • temperature, and
  • exposure to direct sunlight.

Persistent pesticides leave residues that stay in the environment without breaking down for a long time. Sometimes these pesticides are desirable because they provide long-term pest control and may reduce the need for repeated applications. However, some persistent pesticides that are applied to or spilled on soil, plants, lumber, and other surfaces or into water can later cause harm to sensitive plants, animals, or humans that contact them. Clues on pesticide labeling that a particular pesticide product is likely to be persistent include:

"Can remain in the soil for 34 months or more and cause injury to certain crops other than those listed as acceptable on the label."

"This product can remain phytotoxic for a year or more."

When using persistent pesticides, consider whether their continued presence in the environment is likely to harm people, plants or animals.

When pesticides build up in the bodies of animals or in the soil, they are said to accumulate. When the same mixing/loading site or equipment cleaning site is used frequently without taking steps to limit and clean up spills, pesticides are likely to accumulate in the soil. When this occurs, plants, animals, and objects that come into contact with the soil may be harmed. When pesticides accumulate in the soil, there is also a higher likelihood that the pesticides will move offsite and contaminate the surrounding environment or move into surface or ground water.

Sometimes animals can be harmed when they feed on plants or animals that have pesticide residues on or in them. A special concern is for predator birds or mammals that feed on animals that have been killed by pesticides. The predators may be harmed by the pesticide residues remaining on or in the bodies of the dead animals.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Toxic to fish, birds, and wildlife. This product can pose a secondary hazard to birds of prey and mammals."

"Do not use fish as food or feed within three days of application."

"Animals feeding on treated areas may be killed and pose a hazard to hawks and other birds-of-prey. Bury or otherwise dispose of dead animals to prevent poisoning of other wildlife."




Harmful Effects on Nontarget Plants and Animals

‘‘Harmful Effects on Nontarget Plants and Animals; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Nontarget organisms may be harmed by pesticides in two ways:

  • the pesticide may cause injury by contacting the nontarget organism directly, or
  • the pesticide may leave a residue that causes later injuries.




Harmful Effects on Surfaces

‘‘Harmful Effects on Surfaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Sometimes surfaces are harmed by pesticides or pesticide residues. Some surfaces may become discolored, while others may become pitted or marked. Some pesticides can corrode or obstruct electronic systems or metal. Others will leave a visible deposit on the treated surface.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Do not apply to carpeting, linoleum, or other porous floor coverings, as discoloration may result."

"Do not spray on plastic, painted, or varnished surfaces."

"May cause pitting of automobile and other vehicle paint."

"Do not spray directly into any electronic equipment or into outlets and switches, or any other location where the pesticide may foul or short-circuit contacts and circuits."

"A visible deposit may occur on some dark surfaces."




Identifying Information

‘‘Identifying Information; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide labeling contains basic information that helps users clearly identify the product. Some of these items will be on the front panel of every label according to EPA requirements. Other items, while generally on the front panel, may be located elsewhere on the label or in the labeling if the manufacturer chooses.




Ingredient statement

‘‘Ingredient statement; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Each pesticide label must list what is in the product. The list is written so you can readily see what the active ingredients are and the amount of each ingredient (as a percentage of the total product). The ingredient statement must list the official chemical name and/or common name for each active ingredient. Inert ingredients need not be named, but the label must show what percent of the total contents they make up.

The chemical name is a complex name that identifies the chemical components and structure of the pesticide. This name is almost always listed in the ingredient statement on the label. For example, the chemical name of Diazinonr is O,O-Diethyl O-(2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-pyrimidinyl) phosphorothioate.

Because pesticides have complex chemical names, many are given a shorter common name. Only common names that are officially accepted by the EPA may be used in the ingredient statement on the pesticide label. The official common name may be followed by the chemical name in the list of active ingredients. For example, a label with the brand name Sevinr 50% WP would read:

Active ingredient:

Carbaryl (1-naphthyl N-methyl carbamate) 50%

Inert ingredients 50%

By purchasing pesticides according to the common or chemical names, you will always be sure to get the right active ingredient.




Insect

‘‘Insect; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

There are more kinds of insects on earth than all other living animals combined. They are found in soil, hot springs, water, snow, air, and on or inside of plants and animals. They eat the choicest foods from our table. They can even eat the table.

The large number of insects can be divided into three categories according to their importance to people:

  • Species of ecological importance -- About 99 percent of all species are in this category. They do not directly help or harm people, but they are crucial in the food web. They are food for birds, fish, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, aquatic life, and other insects. Some remove animal wastes and dead plants and animals, returning nutrients to the environment. Some are considered beautiful.
  • Beneficial insects -- In this small but important group are the predators and parasites that feed on harmful insects, mites, and weeds. Examples are ladybird beetles, some bugs, ground beetles, tachinid flies, praying mantids, and many tiny parasitic wasps. Also in this category are the pollinating insects, such as bumblebees and honeybees, some moths, butterflies, and beetles. Without pollinators, many kinds of plants could not grow. Honey from honeybees is food for people. Secretions from some insects are made into dyes and paints. Silk comes from the cocoons of silkworms.
  • Destructive insects -- Although this is the category that usually comes to mind when insects are mentioned, it includes the fewest species. These are the insects that feed on, cause injury to, or transmit disease to people, animals, plants, food, fiber, and structures. This category includes, for example, aphids, beetles, fleas, mosquitoes, caterpillars, and termites.


Insect Damage

‘‘Insect Damage; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Insects, ticks, mites, and similar pests, including nematodes and mollusks, damage plants, animals, and structures in many ways. The damage often provides clues to the identity of the pest. Nematodes, for example, are too small to be seen, so their characteristic damage may be the only indication of their presence.

Even though pests are present, the level of damage they are causing may not be of enough economic importance to warrant control measures. The potential for harm may be greater at some times than others. For example, insects that damage leaves in the spring are usually more harmful to a plant than insects that damage leaves in the late summer when the plant is already about to lose its leaves.


Insect Damage, Animal Pests

‘‘Insect Damage, Animal Pests; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The insects, ticks, mites, and similar pests that attack people and other animals have mouthparts similar to those of the plant feeders, but they suck blood and animal fluids rather than plant fluids.

Mosquitoes, lice, and ticks are bloodsucking pests. Cattle grubs, the ox warble of cows, and the bot fly of horses are internal feeding insects. Face flies, house flies, and gnats annoy and cause discomfort.

Some insects and insect-like pests inject disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and other parasites, into the animals they are feeding on. In the United States, mosquitoes carry encephalitis and ticks carry Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease.


Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Cutworms

‘‘Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Cutworms; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some insect pest larvae cut off plants at the soil surface. Cutworms are often hard to detect and control, because they feed at night and stay under the ground during the day.


Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Internal feeders

‘‘Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Internal feeders; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some insects and insect-like pests feed and develop inside fruit, grain, or other plant parts. Usually the larval stage causes the damage during feeding. Some pests pupate inside their host. Because they are inside the plant, these pests often cause significant damage before they are detected. They are also more difficult to control when they are inside the plant. Internal feeders include boll weevils, rice weevils, birch leaf miners, and codling moths.


Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Leaf-eaters

‘‘Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Leaf-eaters; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some insects and insect-like pests feed on plant leaves. For many plants, the loss of a few leaves will not cause reduced yield. But when pests remove most or all of the leaves from a plant, the plant is killed or is left stunted and unproductive. The larval stage (caterpillars) of some butterflies and moths can cause costly damage. Examples include gypsy moths that feed on trees and imported cabbageworms that feed on cabbage leaves. Some beetles are also leaf- eating pests, including the Colorado potato beetle and the Mexican bean beetle.

Snails and slugs feed on plants at night. They tear holes in foliage, fruits, and soft stems, using a rasp-like tongue. They may eat entire seedlings. As they move, snails and slugs leave a slime-like mucous trail that dries into silvery streaks. These streaks are undesirable on floral and ornamental crops and on the parts of crops that are to be sold for human food.


Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Plant-sucking pests

‘‘Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Plant-sucking pests; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some insects and insect-like pests have sucking mouthparts that allow them to suck juices from plants. The activity of these pests can lead to curling and stunting of leaves and stems; wilting caused by blockage of water-conducting tissues; and dead areas caused by toxins the pest injects during feeding.

As they feed, plant-sucking pests may also spread plant disease organisms. Some plant diseases can be controlled by controlling the insect pests that cause their spread.

While they suck on the plants, aphids and similar insects excrete honeydew that drips onto the lower parts of the plant. A fungus that causes a black sooty mold often grows on this sticky material.

Other examples of plant-sucking pests are stink bugs and squash bugs.


Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Stalk or stem borers

‘‘Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Stalk or stem borers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The larval stage of some insects and insect-like pests bore into stalks or stems. This harms the plant by weakening the stalk or stem and by preventing water and food from flowing freely within the plant. Weakened plants may blow over or wilt as a result of the damage. Examples of these borers include European corn borers, squash vine borers, and dogwood borers.


Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Underground feeders

‘‘Insect Damage, Plant Pests -- Underground feeders; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Many insects and insect-like pests cause damage by feeding on plant roots. Root-feeding pests interfere with the plant's water and nutrient uptake. They can cause dead spots in turfgrass, "goose-necking" in corn, and poor color, stunting, and loss of vigor in a wide range of crops. Some underground feeders are the larval stage of insects. They include white grubs, corn rootworm, black vine weevil, and many kinds of fly maggots. Another kind of underground feeders are nematodes. Although some types of nematodes attack aboveground plant parts, most pest nematode species feed on or in the roots. They may feed in one location, or they may constantly move throughout the roots.

Underground pests are often difficult to identify, because they cannot be seen without uprooting the plants. Nematodes are too small to see with the naked eye. Their presence is often identified from the characteristic damage they cause or from experience with previous infestations. Confirmed identification of plant pest nematodes requires sending samples of the soil, roots, and/or other affected plant parts to a laboratory.


Insect Pest Control Strategy

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Control of insects and similar pests may involve any of the three basic pest control objectives. Control is usually aimed at suppression of pests to a point where the presence or damage level is acceptable. Prevention and eradication are useful only in relatively small, confined areas or in programs designed to keep foreign pests out of a new area.

To successfully control insects and insect-like pests, you need a thorough knowledge of their habitats, feeding habits, and life cycle stages.

Environmental conditions, such as humidity, temperature, and availability of food, can affect the length of the life cycle by altering the growth rate of the insects. A favorable environment (usually warm and humid) can shorten the time of development from egg to adult.

You must carefully monitor pest populations and take management action at a time when you are most likely to succeed. Timing may be essential, for example, when you need to control an internal feeder before it enters the plant. It is particularly useful to know the life cycle stages in which the pests are most vulnerable:

In the egg and pupal stages, insects generally are difficult to control, because these stages are inactive. The pests are not feeding, are immobile, and often are in hard-to-reach areas such as under the ground, in cocoons or cases, and in cracks or crevices.

  • In the late instar and adult stages, insects may be controlled with moderate success. Because of their size, the insects are easiest to see in these stages and usually are causing the most destruction. However, larger insects are often more resistant to pesticides, and adults already may have laid eggs for another generation.
  • The early larval or nymphal stages, when the insects are small, active, and vulnerable, is when you usually can achieve the best control.

Control methods used for insects and similar pests include:

  • host resistance,
  • biological control,
  • cultural control,
  • mechanical control,
  • sanitation, and
  • chemical control.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Biological control measures for insects include:

  • predators and parasites,
  • sterile males,
  • pheromones,
  • juvenile hormones, and
  • microbials.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Juvenile hormones

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Juvenile hormones; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Juvenile hormones, another type of species-specific chemical, interrupt the metamorphosis of insects (and insect-like organisms). These chemicals prevent reproduction by keeping immature insects from maturing into adults. Each chemical acts against a single pest species and has the same advantages and disadvantages as pheromones. They have been effectively used to control fleas, cockroaches, and fire ants. The pest populations slowly decline over several weeks, since they are unable to reproduce. Juvenile hormones are seldom used in agriculture because a quick kill is usually desired.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Microbials

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Microbials; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Microbial pesticides are microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses, that have been formulated into pest control products. Microbial pesticides are introduced into infested areas to subject pests to disease. They almost always present an extremely low hazard to people and to nontarget organisms. Most microbial pesticides are naturally occurring organisms, but some are genetically altered specifically for this purpose.

The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is one of the best known microbial pesticides. Different strains of Bt are used to control larvae of moths, mosquitoes, and black flies.

Two species of bacteria that cause milky spore disease in Japanese beetles are effective pesticides. Another bacteria is marketed to control crown gall in trees, shrubs, and vines. An organism that causes disease in milkweed vine is sold to control that weed in certain crops.

Fungi are also used as microbial pesticides. One fungus is marketed to control certain mites and another is used to control a specific vetch weed in certain crop areas. A virus is sold to control certain moth pests and another is used to control codling moths.

Microbials are usually applied as a broadcast spray to infect as many target pests as possible. Like pheromones, microbials may be costly to develop, produce, and market, because they are often pest-specific.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Pheromones

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Pheromones; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some insects (and insect-like organisms) produce natural chemicals, called pheromones, that cause responses in other insects of the same or very closely related species. Once a particular insect pheromone is identified and the chemical is synthetically produced, it can be used to disrupt the behavior of that insect species.

Synthetic pheromones may be used to disrupt normal reproduction, or they may be used to attract the pests into a trap. Pheromones in traps are often used in IPM monitoring, such as for the Mediterranean fruit fly in Florida, the boll weevil in the South, and various insect pests in orchards.

Because each pheromone affects only one specific group of insects, their use usually poses very little risk to other organisms, including people. Unfortunately, only a few synthetic pheromones are available, because it is costly to discover, produce, and market a chemical that controls only one pest species. As a result, synthetic pheromones are mainly used on high-value crops.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Predators and parasites

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Predators and parasites; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Most insect and insect-like pests have a variety of natural predators and parasites that help keep their numbers in check. If these natural enemies of the insect you need to control are already present in the area, you may be able to make use of them. If you use pesticides, try to use ones that are not toxic to the predators and parasites you want to encourage -- or apply the pesticides at a time when the beneficial organisms are not vulnerable.

For some pests, predators and parasites can be introduced into an area where they do not occur naturally. These organisms are made available only after it is certain that they will not harm people, animals, plants, and other beneficial organisms. Such introductions of a pest's natural enemies usually work best when done as part of a coordinated effort over a wide area, as in government-sponsored release programs.

Several kinds of parasites and predators of the alfalfa weevil, for example, have been imported from Europe and Asia and released in infested areas in this country. Several species have become established and are helping to reduce pest numbers. However, they do not always prevent serious outbreaks.

You can buy many kinds of predators (such as lady beetles) or parasites (usually various parasitic wasps) for use in your own pest management program. This technique may be of limited benefit in open fields, because the insects may not stay in the area where you release them. The use of predators and parasites can work well in enclosed areas, such as greenhouses, but you need considerable knowledge and expertise for this method of pest management.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Sterile males

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Biological Control -- Sterile males; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Males of some pest insect species may be reared and sterilized in laboratories and released in large numbers into infested areas to mate with native females. These matings produce infertile eggs or sterile offspring and help reduce the pest population.

The screwworm, which attacks cattle, is one of the few insects that have the characteristics to allow this technique to be successful. The screwworm female mates only once, and screwworm populations per square mile are not dense.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some problems with insects, mites, spiders, and nematodes can best be managed with the use of chemicals. Chemicals such as insecticides, acaricides, and nematicides are used to control these pests.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control -- Applying insecticides

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control -- Applying insecticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Thorough knowledge of the target pest helps determine what chemicals to use and how often to apply them. One well-timed application of an effective pesticide may provide the desired control. Sometimes repeated applications will be necessary as the infestation continues and pesticide residues break down. The pesticide label, Extension Service recommendations, and other sources, such as pesticide dealers, usually indicate a range of treatment intervals and dosages. By carefully observing the pest problem and applying chemicals when the pests are most vulnerable, you often will be able to use lower doses of pesticides and apply them less often. Over a long growing period, this can mean considerable savings in time, money, and total pesticides applied.

The best control strategies take advantage of the natural controls provided by the pest's natural enemies. When you choose a pesticide, consider what effect it will have on these beneficial organisms.

Also think about how a pesticide treatment will affect other pests in the area. If your treatment kills the predators and parasites of an insect that does not currently require control, that insect could quickly multiply to become a problem.

Ask your pesticide dealer, your Extension agent, or other experts for advice about the need for monitoring pest populations, delaying insecticide use, and choosing pest-specific products.




Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control -- Mode of Action

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control -- Mode of Action; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Most of these pesticides either repel the pests or poison them:

  • Repellents keep pests away from an area or from a specific host. Products designed to keep mosquitoes, chiggers, and ticks off people are an example.
  • Poisons act on one or more life systems in the pest. Stomach poisons must be eaten by the pest; contact poisons act when the pest touches them.

A few insecticides kill insects by interfering mechanically with their body functions. For example, mineral oils suffocate insects; silica dusts destroy their body water balance by damaging their protective wax covering.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control -- Persistence

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Chemical Control -- Persistence; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Insecticides and related chemicals vary in the length of time they remain active after they are applied. Some kill the pests they contact at the time of application and then break down almost immediately. These are nonpersistent pesticides.

Others, known as persistent -- or residual -- pesticides, remain active for varying periods of time after they are applied. The active pesticide residue that these products leave behind gives continued protection against pests that may enter the area after the application is completed.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

In general, plants that are grown under conditions that allow them to be healthy and free of stress are usually more able to resist insect attacks than are less hardy plants. Depending on the situation, there are several specific cultural techniques that may help control insects and similar pests. They include:

  • crop rotation,
  • trap crops,
  • delay of planting, and
  • harvest timing.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Crop rotation

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Crop rotation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Taking infested fields out of production and leaving them fallow or planting an alternate crop may deprive pests of host plants on which to feed and reproduce. Rotations work best against insects that have long life cycles and infest the crop during all stages of growth. Many traditional crop rotation schemes -- corn and soybean rotation, for example -- were developed to reduce pest problems.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Delay of planting

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Delay of planting; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Delaying the planting date may reduce the population of certain pests by eliminating the plants they need for food and reproduction. For example, you can avoid Hessian fly damage in wheat by delaying planting until fly reproduction has ended for the year.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Harvest timing

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Harvest timing; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Do not leave crops in the field after maturity if they are susceptible to pest attack. For example, wireworm damage to mature potatoes causes a serious quality reduction. Damage increases if the crop is left in the ground for even a short time after maturity.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Trap crops

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Cultural Control -- Trap crops; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Other crops attractive to pests may be planted early or nearby to draw pests away from the main crop. By destroying trap crops at the proper time, you can break the reproductive cycle of the pest before the desired crops are infested. To control the pickle worm in cucumbers, for example, you might also plant yellow squash, to which the pest is more attracted. The squash crop can be sprayed or destroyed before the pest can complete its development. The use of trap crops can also be effective against snails and slugs. Trap crops are expensive because of the land they occupy and the cost of their production.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Host Resistance

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Host Resistance; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some crops, animals, and structures resist insects and similar pests better than others. Some varieties of crops and wood are immune to certain pests. Use of resistant types helps keep pest populations below harmful levels by making the environment less favorable for the pests.

Biotechnologists and plant breeders are using genetic engineering to build pest resistance into plants. The protein crystal in Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that is toxic to many caterpillars, for example, has been incorporated into some plants. Leaf-feeding insects that feed on leaves containing the Bt protein often will die, making insecticide applications unnecessary.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Mechanical controls used on insects and similar pests are:

  • screens and other barriers,
  • traps,
  • light, and
  • heat and cold.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Heat and cold

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Heat and cold; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

In some cases, it is possible to expose insect pests to the killing effects of the heat of summer or cold of winter. Insects that feed on stored grain and flour, for example, can sometimes be controlled by ventilating grain elevators with cold winter air temperatures. Manipulation of temperature for pest management is also effective in some greenhouse situations.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Light

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Light; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Insect pests may be attracted to artificial light at night. However, since not all the pests are killed, the light attractant may actually help create infestations.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Screens and other barriers

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Screens and other barriers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Use of screens and other barriers is an important way to keep pests out of structures. Flying insects, such as mosquitoes, wasps, and flies, are kept outside by blocking any openings with screening. The effective mesh size depends on the size of the smallest flying insect pests in that environment. Crawling insects are also kept outside by screens or by other barriers such as tightly sealed doors and windows. Barriers made of sticky substances sometimes can be used to stop crawling insects from entering an area. Barriers can also be an effective control measure for snails and slugs. Moving air from fans can repel mosquitoes, eyegnats, and other small flying insects.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Traps

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Mechanical Control -- Traps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Traps are sometimes used to control the target pest. More often, however, they are used to survey for the presence of insect pests and to determine when the pest population has increased to the point where control is needed.


Insect Pest Control Strategy, Sanitation

‘‘Insect Pest Control Strategy, Sanitation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Tilling fields and burning crop residues soon after harvest greatly aid in the control of some insect pests, as well as snails and slugs, on agricultural crops. Pink bollworm infestations in cotton, for example, can be greatly reduced by plowing the field immediately after harvest.

Removing litter from around buildings helps control pests that use it for breeding or shelter. Ants, termites, and some other indoor pests may be suppressed by using this technique.

Sanitation is important in the control of animal parasites and filth flies. Fly control in and around barns, poultry houses, and livestock pens, for example, is greatly aided by proper manure management.

Indoors, sanitation is a major method of preventing insect pest problems. Keeping surfaces clean and dry is an important factor in suppressing ant, fly, and cockroach infestations.


Insect, Life Cycles

‘‘Insect, Life Cycles; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Most insect reproduction results from the males fertilizing the females. The females of some aphids and parasitic wasps produce eggs without mating. In some of these insect species, males are unknown. A few insects give birth to living young; however, life for most insects begins as an egg.

Temperature, humidity, and light are some of the major factors influencing the time of hatching. Eggs come in various sizes and shapes: elongate, round, oval, and flat. Eggs of cockroaches, grasshoppers, and praying mantids are laid in capsules. Eggs may be deposited singly or in masses on or near the host -- in soil or water or on plants, animals, or structures.

The series of changes through which an insect passes in its growth from egg to adult is called metamorphosis.

When the young first hatches from an egg, it is called either a larva, nymph, or naiad, depending on the species. After feeding for a time, the young grows to a point where the skin cannot stretch further; the young sheds its skin (molts) and new skin is formed.

The number of these developmental stages (called instars) varies with different insect species and, in some cases, may vary with the temperature, humidity, and food supply. The heaviest feeding generally occurs during the final two instars.

The mature (adult) stage is when the insect is capable of reproduction. Winged species develop their wings at maturity. In some species, mature insects do not feed, and in some species the adults do not feed on the same material as the immature forms.


Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, Complete

‘‘Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, Complete; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The insects with complete metamorphosis pass through four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The young, which may be called larvae, caterpillars, maggots, or grubs, are entirely different from the adults. They usually live in different situations and in many cases feed on different foods than adults. Examples are the beetles, butterflies, flies, mosquitoes, fleas, bees, and ants.

Larvae hatch from the egg. They grow larger by molting and passing through one to several instar stages. Moth and butterfly larvae are called caterpillars; some beetle larvae are called grubs; most fly larvae are called maggots. Caterpillars often have legs; maggots are legless. Weevil grubs are legless; other kinds of beetle larvae usually have three pairs of legs.

The pupa is a resting stage during which the larva changes into an adult with legs, wings, antennae, and functional reproductive organs. Some insects form a cocoon during this stage.


Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, Gradual

‘‘Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, Gradual; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Insects in this group pass through three different stages of development before reaching maturity: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymphs resemble the adult in form, eat the same food, and live in the same environment. The change of the body is gradual, and the wings become fully developed only in the adult stage. Examples are cockroaches, boxelder bugs, lice, termites, aphids, and scales.


Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, Incomplete

‘‘Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, Incomplete; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The insects with incomplete metamorphosis also pass through three stages of development: egg, naiad, and adult. The adult is similar to the young, but the naiads are aquatic. Examples: dragonflies, mayflies, and stoneflies.


Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, None

‘‘Insect, Life Cycles -- Metamorphosis, None; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Between hatching and reaching the adult stage, some insects do not change except in size. The insect grows larger with each successive instar until it reaches maturity. Examples are silverfish, firebrats, and springtails. The food and habitats of the young (called nymphs) are similar to those of the adult.


Insect, Physical Characteristics

‘‘Insect, Physical Characteristics; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

All adult insects have two physical characteristics in common. They have three pairs of jointed legs, and they have three body regions -- the head, thorax, and abdomen.

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Insect, Physical Characteristics -- Abdomen

‘‘Insect, Physical Characteristics -- Abdomen; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The abdomen is usually composed of 11 segments, but 8 or fewer segments may be visible. Along each side of most of the segments are openings (called spiracles) through which the insect breathes. In some insects, the tip end of the abdomen has tail-like appendages.


Insect, Physical Characteristics -- Head

‘‘Insect, Physical Characteristics -- Head; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The head has antennae, eyes, and mouthparts. Antennae vary in size and shape and can be a help in identifying some pest insects. Insects have compound eyes made up of many individual eyes. These compound eyes enable insects to detect motion, but they probably cannot see clear images.

The four general types of mouthparts are:

  • chewing,
  • piercing-sucking,
  • sponging, and
  • siphoning.

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Chewing mouthparts contain toothed jaws that bite and tear. Cockroaches, ants, beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers are in this group.

Piercing-sucking mouthparts consist of a long slender tube that is forced into plant or animal tissue to suck out fluids or blood. Insects with these mouthparts include stable flies, sucking lice, bed bugs, mosquitoes, true bugs, and aphids.

Sponging mouthparts are tubular tongue-like structures with a spongy tip to suck up liquids or soluble food. This type of mouthpart is found in flesh flies, blow flies, and house flies.

Siphoning mouthparts are formed into a long tube for sucking nectar. Butterflies and moths have this type.


Insect, Physical Characteristics -- Thorax

‘‘Insect, Physical Characteristics -- Thorax; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The thorax contains the three pairs of legs and (if present) the wings. The various sizes, shapes, and textures of wings and the pattern of the veins can be used to identify insect species. The forewings take many forms. In the beetles, they are hard and shell-like; in the grasshoppers, they are leathery. The forewings of flies are membranous; those of true bugs are part membranous and part hardened. Most insects have membranous hindwings. The wings of moths and butterflies are membranous but are covered with scales.


INSECT-LIKE PESTS

‘‘INSECT-LIKE PESTS; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some other kinds of pest organisms -- such as mites, ticks,

spiders, sowbugs, pillbugs, centipedes, millipedes, nematodes, and mollusks -- are similar to insects in many ways. Most of these pests resemble insects and have similar life cycles; all of them cause similar damage and usually can be managed with the same techniques and materials used to manage insects.


INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Arachnids

‘‘INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Arachnids; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Mites, ticks, spiders, and scorpions have eight legs and only two body regions. They are wingless and lack antennae. The metamorphosis is gradual and includes both larval and nymphal stages. Eggs hatch into larvae (six legs) that become nymphs (eight legs) and then adults. Ticks and mites have modified piercing-sucking mouthparts; spiders and scorpions have chewing mouthparts.


INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Centipedes and Millipedes

‘‘INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Centipedes and Millipedes; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Centipedes have one pair of legs per segment. They have chewing mouthparts. Some species can inflict painful bites.

Millipedes have two pairs of legs per segment and are cylindrical like an earthworm. The body is wingless. The antennae are short and mouthparts are comb-like. Millipedes feed on decaying organic matter, seeds, bulbs, and roots.

There is no metamorphosis; centipedes and millipedes do not change except in size between hatching and reaching the adult stage.


INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Crustaceans

‘‘INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Crustaceans; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sowbugs and pillbugs, water fleas, and wood lice have 10 or more legs. They are wingless and contain only one segmented body region. They have two pairs of antennae and chewing mouthparts. Sowbugs and pillbugs have a hard, protective shell-like covering and are related to the aquatic lobsters, crabs, and crayfish. The metamorphosis is gradual, and there may be up to 20 instars before adulthood is reached.


INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Mollusks

‘‘INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Mollusks; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Mollusks are a large group of land and water animals including slugs, oysters, clams, barnacles, and snails. They have soft, unsegmented bodies and often are protected by a hard shell. Snails and slugs -- Land snails and slugs are soft-bodied and have two pairs of antennae-like structures. Their bodies are smooth and elongated. Snails have a spiral-shaped shell into which they can completely withdraw for protection when disturbed or when weather conditions are unfavorable. Slugs do not have a shell and must seek protection in damp places. Snails and slugs deposit eggs in moist, dark places. The young mature in a year or more, depending on the species. Adults may live for several years. They overwinter in sheltered areas. They are active all year in warm regions and in greenhouses.



INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Nematodes

‘‘INSECT-LIKE PESTS, Nematodes; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘


Nematodes are small, usually microscopic, roundworms. The mouthparts of those that feed on plants are like a hollow needle. They use it to puncture plant cells and feed on the contents. Nematodes may develop and feed either inside or outside of a plant. They move with an eel-like motion in water, even water as thin as the film of moisture around plant cells or soil particles. Because nematodes are not visible to the naked eye, it is easy for people to unknowingly spread them when they get on footwear, tools, and equipment.

The life cycle of a nematode includes an egg, several larval stages, and an adult. Most larvae look like adults, but are smaller. In adverse conditions, the females of some species, such as root knot and cyst nematodes, form an inactive, resistant form called a cyst. The cyst is the hard, leathery, egg-filled body of the dead female. It is difficult to penetrate with pesticides. A cyst may provide protection for several hundred eggs for as long as 10 years.



Integrated Pest Management

‘‘Integrated Pest Management; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Integrated pest management is the combination of appropriate pest control tactics into a single plan to reduce pests and their damage to an acceptable level. Using many different tactics to control a pest problem tends to cause the least disruption to the living organisms and nonliving surroundings at the treatment site. Relying only on pesticides can cause pests to develop resistance to pesticides, cause outbreaks of other pests, and can harm surfaces or nontarget organisms. With some pests, using pesticides alone will not achieve adequate control.

To solve pest problems, you must:

  • identify the pest or pests and determine whether control is warranted for each,
  • determine your pest control goal(s),
  • know what control tactics are available,
  • evaluate the benefits and risks of each tactic or combination of tactics,
  • choose a strategy that will be most effective and will cause the least harm to people and the environment,
  • use each tactic in the strategy correctly,
  • observe local, state, and federal regulations that apply to the situation.

The strategy you choose will depend on the pest you have identified and the kind and amount of control you need.



IPM, definition of

‘‘IPM, definition of; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Integrated pest management is an approach to pest control that combines biological, cultural, and other alternatives to chemical control with the judicious use of pesticides. The objective of IPM is to maintain pest levels below economically damaging levels while minimizing harmful effects of pest control on human health and environmental resources. Figure 2 -1 shows a model for IPM.


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Pest problems do not arise as independent or isolated events. Crops and pests are part of an agroecosystem, and they are governed by the same biological processes as those in natural ecosystems. Attempts to control one pest species without regard for the entire ecosystem can disrupt checks and balances between crop plants, pests, beneficials, and the physical environment. Failure to appreciate ecological interactions may increase the severity of pest infestations. Action taken against one pest may exacerbate problems with another or may be incompatible with other control tactics. Integrated pest management (IPM)depends on a detailed understanding of pest growth and development, and in particular, what causes outbreaks and determines survival.

Integrated means that a broad interdisciplinary approach is taken using scientific principles of plant protection to bring together a variety of management tactics into an overall strategy.

  • IPM strives for maximum use of naturally occurring control forces in the pest's environment including weather, pest diseases, predators, and parasites (fig.2 -2). Biointensive IPM attempts to reduce the use of conventional pesticides by looking first to biological and cultural alternatives as well as use of least-toxic biorational (derived from items in nature)products that only affect the target pest.

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  • With IPM, the role for chemical pesticides is one of last resort if alternatives fail to correct the problem. Pesticides are never applied according to a preset schedule or spray calendar in an IPM program. Instead, they only are used if scouting shows they really are needed to prevent severe damage (fig 2 -3).

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  • Prescriptive IPM depends largely on judicious use of pesticides based on field scouting that shows pest infestation has exceeded economic thresholds.


Management -- refers to the decisionmaking process used to keep pest numbers below economical threshold levels. Eradication is never the goal because low levels of pest are tolerable from an economic point of view. The essence of IPM is decisionmaking: determining if, when, where, and what mix of control methods are needed. Diverse IPM strategies help to control pest resistance, pest resurgence, and pest replacement. IPM decisionmaking also helps to control pest resistance, pest resurgence, and pest replacement.

Resistance -- is the innate (genetically inherited) ability of organisms to evolve strains that can survive exposure to pesticides formerly lethal to earlier generations (fig 2 -4).

Resistance can develop when pesticide application kills susceptible individuals while allowing naturally resistant individuals to survive. These survivors pass to their offspring the genetically determined resistance trait. With repeated pesticide application, the pest population increasingly is comprised of resistant individuals.

In theory, pests can develop resistance to any type of IPM tactic:biological, cultural, or chemical. In the Midwest, farmers routinely rotate corn with soybeans to break the infestation cycle of the corn rootworm, an insect that only feeds on grassy plants and so has become the key insect pest of field corn. Yet the rootworm has developed strains that overcome crop rotation by extending their over-wintering resting stage in the soil from one winter to several winters. This allows them to be ready to attack corn the next time it is planted in the field. Still other rootworm populations have developed strains that feed on both corn and soybeans.

In practice, resistance occurs most frequently in response to pesticide use. Insects were the first group of pests to develop pesticide resistant strains. Worldwide, over 600 species are resistant to at least one insecticide; some are resistant to all the major classes of insecticides. Herbicide resistant weeds now number more than 100 worldwide and fungicide-resistant plant pathogens have also been observed.

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Resurgence -- is the situation where insecticide application initially reduces an infestation, but soon afterwards the pest rebounds (resurges)to higher levels than before treatment.

Replacement -- or secondary pest outbreak, is resurgence of nontarget pests. It occurs when a pesticide is used to control the target pest, but afterwards a formerly insignificant pest replaces the target pest as an economic problem. Figure 2 -5 illustrates the treadmill effect of over-reliance on pesticides.

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IPM, principles of

‘‘IPM, principles of; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Principle #1. There is no silver bullet.

Over-reliance on any single control measure can have undesirable effects. This especially has been documented for pesticides where over-reliance can lead to the "3-R's": resistance, resurgence, and replacement. IPM considers all possible control actions, including taking no action at all, and fits tactics together into mutually complementary strategies. The idea is to combine different control tactics into an overall strategy that balances the strengths of each against any individual weaknesses.

Principle #2. Tolerate, do not eradicate.

IPM recognizes that keeping fields entirely pest-free is neither necessary nor desirable -it is not necessary to totally eliminate pests and, in fact ,low levels of pest help maintain a preditor population. Because most crops can tolerate low pest infestation levels without any loss in harvestable produce or quality, the presence of a pest does not necessarily mean that you have a pest problem. IPM seeks to reduce pest populations below levels that are economically damaging rather than to totally eliminate infestations.

Principle #3. Treat the causes of pest out-breaks, not the symptoms.

IPM requires detailed understanding of pest biology and ecology so that the cropping system selectively can be manipulated to the pest's disadvantage. The idea is to make the crop less favorable for pest survival and reproduction with as little disturbance to the rest of the ecosystem as possible.

Principle #4. If you kill the natural enemies, you inherit their job.

Naturally occurring predators, parasites, pathogens, antagonists, and competitors (collectively known as biological control agents) help keep many pest populations in check. IPM strives to enhance the impact of beneficials and other natural controls by conserving or augmenting those agents already present.

Principle #5. Pesticides are not a substitute for good farming.

A vigorously growing plant better can defend itself against pests than a weak, stressed plant. IPM takes maximum advantage of farming practices that promote plant health and allow crops to escape or tolerate pest injury. IPM begins from the premise that killing pests is not the objective; protecting the commodity is. Pest status can be reduced by repelling the Pest, avoiding the pest, or reducing its rate of colonization or invasion, as well as by directly killing the pest.



Specifications Sheet Instructions

‘‘Specifications Sheet Instructions; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

A pest management component of the conservation management system is a record of the producers decisions for managing pest populations. The objectives for applying pest management in accordance with the specifications are to manage pest populations while protecting the quantity and quality of agricultural commodities and to minimize negative impacts of pest control on soil, water, and air resources.

Steps to complete the specifications sheet:

Step 1. Landowner, date, and assisted by

Complete the spaces provided to identify the landowner, date, and planner providing technical assistance.

Step 2. Tracts/field(s)

Identify the tract and field for which the plan is being developed. More than one tract or field can be included on a single specification sheet if the soils, crop, and target pest are similar and will be managed similarly.

Step 3. Soils

Identify the soil(s)being used to plan the management of the field. If management will be planned differently for each soil, list the soils applicable to this particular specifications sheet. The soils listed will be used in the environmental risk analysis for soil and water quality.

Step 4. Crop sequence/rotation

Identify the crops planned for the field(s). List the crops in the sequence they will be planted, if known. Scheduling the type and sequence of crops can help reduce pest pressures and avoid mistakes, such as crop damage from herbicide carryover. Circle the crop(s)for which this specification sheet is being developed.

Step 5. Management system

Describe the management system applicable to the field(s).Examples include a reduced tillage system with 20 percent residue after planting or a rotational grazing system for dairy cows.

Step 6. Assessment completed for:

Identify if an analysis has been or will be completed for pesticide environmental risk, erosion, or soil quality. If the plan includes the use of pesticides, an environmental risk analysis based on soil and chemical properties of the pesticide will be made. The analysis should include the potential for the pesticide to move offsite through leaching and surface runoff in solution and attached to sediment. Available analysis tools for pesticide risk analysis include the Soil Pesticide Interaction Screening Procedure (SPISP II), The Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST),and the

National Agricultural Pesticide Risk Analysis (NAPRA). Available tools to analyze the impacts of management alternatives on erosion and soil quality are the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ),and the Soil Conditioning Index (SCI).Other analysis tools may be available locally.

Step 7. Target pest

Identify each target pest for which the pest management plan is being developed.

Step 8. Management method

Describe the specific method planned for managing each target pest. Include the type of control planned, such as mechanical, cultural, biological, or chemical, and applicable details, such as type of tillage, use of pest resistant varieties, biological predators, or name of the pesticide. Information to help the producer decide on the management method(s) will come from university or state agency guidelines, producer experiences, and sound agronomic practices.

Step 9. Application techniques

Describe in detail the planned application techniques that will be used to manage each target pest. Include specific management details, such as the rate, form, timing, and method. For pesticides, the rate, timing, and method of application are based on university or state agency guidelines, producer experience, and the product label.

Step 10. Additional specifications

Provide additional information needed to ensure the pest management practice is applied correctly. This is an excellent location to provide information on mitigation techniques to maintain or improve the natural resources or to offset potential negative environmental impacts of applying the pest management practice. Mitigation may include conservation practices and management techniques that the landowner would install or put in place on the field, such as residue management, nutrient management, water management, or conservation buffers.

Step 11. Job sketch

Provide a map showing the field location and acres. Also, show the boundaries of any sensitive areas, such as waterbodies, setbacks, or highly erodible soils, where restrictions to pest management methods may occur. If the conservation plan map includes these items, place a reference in the sketch area to the applicable field(s)on the plan map instead of completing a new drawing.

Step 12. Operation and maintenance

Several items must be assessed and performed routinely. These include calibration of equipment, maintaining a safe working environment, and review and update of the pest management component plan. The plan should be reviewed by the producer to determine if any short-term adjustments are needed for the immediate or following crops. Records of implementation shall be kept in accordance with Federal and State guidelines. Monitoring the effectiveness of management practices and the efficacy of the pest management itself is part of the operation and management.

Step 13. Additional notes

Complete additional information or guidance, if needed. This space can be used to describe sensitive areas in detail or to continue items from previous pages, such as additional operation and maintenance.



General criteria

  • Follow the attached pest management specification.
  • IPM programs that strive to balance economics, efficacy, and environmental risks will be utilized where available. IPM information available for your crops is attached.
  • An appropriate set of mitigation and management techniques must be planned to address the environmental risks of pest management activities. These techniques are incorporated in the attached specification.
  • When applying cultural or mechanical control methods of pest management, crop rotation, residue management, and other practices, must comply with the rest of the conservation plan.
  • When developing alternatives and applying chemical controls of pest management, the following will apply:

1. Utilize pesticide label instructions when developing chemical control alternatives. Pay special attention to environmental hazards and site-specific application criteria.

2. Pesticide environmental risks are incorporated in the attached specification.

3. When a chosen alternative has significant potential to negatively impact important water resources, an appropriate set of mitigation techniques must be used to address risks to humans and non-target aquatic and terrestrial plants and wildlife. Appropriate mitigation techniques are incorporated in the attached specification.

  • Methods of pest management must comply with Federal, State, and local regulations.


Operation, Maintenance, and Safety

Formulate a safety plan complete with names, locations, and telephone numbers of local treatment centers. For human exposure questions, the local center is:

Name:_________________________________

Location:________________________________

Phone:__________________________________

A national hotline in Corvallis, OR, is available:

1-800-424-7378

[6:30a.m.-4:30p.m.Mon.-Fri.,Pacific Time ]

For emergency assistance with agrichemical spills, the local contact is:

Name:___________________________________

Location:_________________________________

Phone:___________________________________

National emergency assistance is available from


CHEMTREC (r) : 1-800-424-9300

  • Post signs around treated fields according to label directions and Federal, State, and local laws. Follow re-entry intervals and wear protective clothing according to the Worker Protection Standard.
  • Dispose of pesticide containers according to label directions and adhere to attached Federal, State, and local regulations.
  • Pesticide users must read and follow label directions, maintain appropriate Material Safety Data Sheets and become certified to apply restricted use pesticides.
  • Calibrate application equipment frequently. Replace worn nozzle tips, cracked hoses, and faulty gauges.
  • Open mixing of chemicals will not occur in the application field near a well or surface waterbody as specified in operations and maintenance. Open mixing should be performed downgradient of wells.
  • Records of pest management required by state law and the USDA Pesticide Record Keeping Program will be maintained by the producer as specified in operations and maintenance. USDA requires that they be kept for at least 2 years.


Pest Management Guidelines

Provide adequate plant nutrients and soil moisture and favorable pH and soil conditions to reduce plant stress, improve plant vigor, and increase the plant 's overall ability to tolerate pests.

  • Diversify treatment methods to minimize the development of pest resistance.
  • Delay pesticide applications when climatic conditions are conducive to of site pesticide

movement.

  • Apply conservation practices and management techniques that reduce runoff and erosion.
  • Use conservation buffers to reduce offsite movement of pollutants.
  • Prevent disruption of Native American artifacts and other cultural resources with land disturbing activities.

DISCLAIMER: Trade names are used solely to provide specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee of the

products by the U.S. Department of Agriculture nor does it imply endorsement by the Department or the Natural Resources Conservation

Service over comparable products that are not named.


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Liquid Formulations: Aerosols (A)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Aerosols (A); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

These formulations contain one or more active ingredients and a solvent. Most aerosols contain a low percentage of active ingredient. There are two types of aerosol formulations -- the ready-to-use type and those made for use in smoke or fog generators.


Ready-to-use aerosols -- These aerosol formulations are usually small, self-contained units that release the pesticide when the nozzle valve is triggered. The pesticide is driven through a fine opening by an inert gas under pressure, creating fine droplets. These products are used in greenhouses, in small areas inside buildings, or in localized outdoor areas. Commercial models, which hold 5 to 10 pounds of pesticide, are usually refillable.

Advantages:

  • Ready to use
  • Easily stored
  • Convenient way to buy small amount of a pesticide
  • Retain potency over fairly long time


Disadvantages:

  • Practical for very limited uses
  • Risk of inhalation injury
  • Hazardous if punctured, overheated, or used near an open flame
  • Difficult to confine to target site or pest


Formulations for smoke or fog generators

These aerosol formulations are not under pressure. They are used in machines that break the liquid formulation into a fine mist or fog (aerosol) using a rapidly whirling disk or heated surface. These formulations are used mainly for insect control in structures such as greenhouses and warehouses and for mosquito and biting fly control outdoors.


Advantages:

  • Easy way to fill entire space with pesticide


Disadvantages:

  • Highly specialized use and equipment
  • Difficult to confine to target site or pest
  • May require respiratory protection to prevent risk of inhalation injury




Liquid Formulations: Concentrate solutions (C or LC)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Concentrate solutions (C or LC); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Other solutions are sold as concentrates that must be further diluted with a liquid solvent before you apply them. Occasionally the solvent is water, but more often the solvent is a specially refined oil or petroleum-based solvent.

Some uses of solutions are:

  • Structural and institutional pest control
  • Control of some household pests
  • Livestock and poultry pest control
  • Space sprays in barns and warehouses
  • Shade tree pest control
  • Mosquito control


Advantages:

  • No agitation necessary


Disadvantages:

  • Limited number of formulations available

The other advantages and disadvantages of solutions vary depending on the solvent used, the concentration of the active ingredient, and the type of application involved.




Liquid Formulations: Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

An emulsifiable concentrate formulation usually contains a liquid active ingredient, one or more petroleum-based solvents, and an agent that allows the formulation to be mixed with water to form an emulsion. Each gallon of EC usually contains 25 to 75 percent (2 to 8 pounds) active ingredient. EC's are among the most versatile formulations. They are used against agricultural, ornamental and turf, forestry, structural, food processing, livestock, and public health pests. They are adaptable to many types of application equipment, from small, portable sprayers to hydraulic sprayers, low-volume ground sprayers, mist blowers, and low-volume aircraft sprayers.


Advantages:

  • Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store
  • Little agitation required -- will not settle out or separate when equipment is running
  • Not abrasive
  • Do not plug screens or nozzles
  • Little visible residue on treated surfaces


Disadvantages:

  • High concentration makes it easy to overdose or underdose through mixing or calibration errors
  • May cause unwanted harm to plants
  • Easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals
  • Solvents may cause rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets, and pump parts and surfaces to deteriorate
  • May cause pitting or discoloration of painted finishes
  • Flammable -- should be used and stored away from heat or open flame
  • May be corrosive




Liquid Formulations: Flowables (F or L)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Flowables (F or L); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘



Some active ingredients are insoluble solids. These may be formulated as flowables in which the finely ground active ingredients are mixed with a liquid, along with inert ingredients, to form a suspension. Flowables are mixed with water for application and are similar to EC or wettable powder formulations in ease of handling and use. They are used in the same types of pest control operations as EC's.


Advantages:

  • Seldom clog nozzles
  • Easy to handle and apply


Disadvantages:
  • Require moderate agitation
  • May leave a visible residue




Liquid Formulations: Invert Emulsions

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Invert Emulsions; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

This mixture contains a water-soluble pesticide dispersed in an oil carrier. Invert emulsions require a special kind of emulsifier that allows the pesticide to be mixed with a large volume of petroleum-based carrier, usually fuel oil. When applied, invert emulsions form large droplets that do not drift easily. Invert emulsions are most commonly used in vegetation control along rights-of-way where drift to susceptible nontarget plants is a problem.





Liquid Formulations: Ready-to-use (RTU)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Ready-to-use (RTU); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some solutions are products that contain the correct amount of solvent when you buy them. No further dilution is required before application. These formulations, usually solutions in petroleum-based solvents, contain small amounts (often 1 percent or less) of active ingredient per gallon.




Liquid Formulations: Solutions (S)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Solutions (S); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticide active ingredients dissolve readily in a liquid solvent, such as water or a petroleum-based solvent. When mixed with the solvent, they form a solution that will not settle out or separate. Formulations of these pesticides usually contain the active ingredient, the solvent, and one or more other ingredients. Solutions may be used in any type of sprayer indoors or outdoors.




Liquid Formulations: Ultra-low-volume (ULV)

‘‘Liquid Formulations: Ultra-low-volume (ULV); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

These concentrates may approach 100 percent active ingredient. They are designed to be used as is or to be diluted with only small quantities of specified solvents. These special-purpose formulations are used mostly in outdoor applications, such as in agricultural, forestry, ornamental, and mosquito control programs.


Advantages:

  • Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store
  • Little agitation required
  • Not abrasive to equipment
  • No plugging of screens and nozzles
  • Little visible residue on treated surfaces


Disadvantages:

  • Difficult to keep pesticide in the target site -- high drift hazard
  • Specialized equipment required
  • Easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals
  • Solvents may cause rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets, and pump parts and surfaces to deteriorate




Mechanical (physical) control

‘‘Mechanical (physical) control; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Devices, machines, and other methods used to control pests or alter their environment are called mechanical or physical controls. Traps, screens, barriers, fences, nets, radiation, and electricity sometimes can be used to prevent the spread of pests into an area.

Lights, heat, and refrigeration can alter the environment enough to suppress or eradicate some pest populations. Altering the amount of water, including humidity, can control some pests, especially insects and disease agents.




Mixing and Loading Practices

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide handlers are most often exposed to harmful amounts of pesticides when mixing or loading concentrated pesticides. Handlers who mix and load concentrated pesticides with high acute toxicity have an especially high risk of accidental poisoning. By observing some simple precautions, you can reduce the risks involved in this part of your job.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Combining -- Compatibility testing

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Combining -- Compatibility testing; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

First, put on personal protective equipment. Wear at least the equipment required by the labeling of any of the pesticides to be combined; protective eyewear; and chemical-resistant gloves and apron, both preferably made of foil laminate. Get a large, clean, clear glass container, such as a quart jar. Use the same water (or other diluent) that you will use when making up the larger mixture. Add the water and each of the products in the same proportions as you will mix them. Unless the pesticide labeling states otherwise, add pesticides to the diluent (usually water) using the "W-A-L-E" plan:

1. Add some of the diluent first.

2. Add Wettable and other powders and Water-dispersible granules.

3. Agitate thoroughly and add the remaining diluent.

4. Add the Liquid products, such as solutions, surfactants, and flowables.

5. Add Emulsifiable concentrates last.

Shake the jar vigorously. Feel the sides of the jar to determine if the mixture is giving off heat. If so, the mixture may be undergoing a chemical reaction and the pesticides should not be combined. Let the mixture stand for about 15 minutes and feel again for unusual heat.

If scum forms on the surface, if the mixture clumps, or if any solids settle to the bottom (except for wettable powders), the mixture probably is not compatible. Finally, if no signs of incompatibility appear, test the mixture on a small area of the surface where it is to be applied.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Combining Pesticides

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Combining Pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide handlers often like to combine two or more pesticides and apply them at the same time. Such mixtures can save time, labor, and fuel. Manufacturers sometimes combine pesticides for sale as a pre-mix. Sometimes pesticide handlers combine pesticides at application.

Under federal law, combining pesticides is legal unless the pesticide labeling of any of the pesticides involved instructs you not to combine them. However, not all pesticides work well when mixed together. They must be compatible -- that is, mixing them together must not reduce their safety or effectiveness. The more pesticides you mix together, the greater the chance of undesirable effects.

Some pesticide mixtures that are physically incompatible make the mixture difficult or impossible to apply and may clog equipment, pumps, and tanks. These reactions sometimes cause the pesticide to form lumps or gels, to become solids that fall to the bottom of the mix tank, or to separate into layers that cannot be remixed.

Sometimes the combined pesticides create a chemical reaction that cannot be seen by looking at the mixture. However, the chemical change can result in:

  • loss of effectiveness against the target pests,
  • increased toxicity to the pesticide handler, and
  • injury to the treated surface.

Some pesticide labeling lists pesticides (and other chemicals) known to be compatible with that formulation. Compatibility charts are available in some pest management recommendations, pesticide trade publications, and Cooperative Extension or industry recommendations. If you cannot find a chart that lists the compatibility of the two pesticides (or the pesticide and other chemical) that you wish to mix, test a small amount of the mixture before you mix large quantities.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Empty Pesticide Containers

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Empty Pesticide Containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Even after it appears that all the pesticide product has been removed from a container, it usually is not truly empty. The pesticide that clings to the inside of the container can be dangerous to you, other people, and the environment. Take care of empty containers at once.

If containers are rinsable, rinse them as soon as they are empty. Return rinsed pesticide containers to the pesticide storage area or the container holding area. Do not leave them unattended at the mixing, loading, or application site. Never give pesticide containers to children to play with or to adults to use.

If you have empty pesticide containers that cannot be refilled, reconditioned, recycled, or returned to the manufacturer, crush, break, or puncture them. This will make the containers unusable and may also save storage space. Dispose of containers in accordance with label directions and with federal, state, tribal, and local laws and regulations. For more specific information on how to dispose of containers, see the chapter on "Transportation, Storage, Disposal, and Spill Cleanup."




Mixing and Loading Practices, Nonrinsable containers

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Nonrinsable containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You may not be able to rinse bags, boxes, and other containers of dry pesticides because the container will not hold up to the rinsing. You also may not be able to rinse containers of ready-to-use pesticides because there is no place to put the rinsate. The pesticide labeling may tell you not to rinse certain types of containers. These containers may be designed to be returned to the pesticide dealer or manufacturer for rinsing. Containers that cannot or should not be rinsed must be emptied as completely as possible. Shake or tap the container to remove as much of the pesticide product as you can. Drain containers of liquid pesticides for at least an additional 30 seconds.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Opening Containers

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Opening Containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Do not tear paper or cardboard containers to open them. Use a sharp knife. Clean the knife afterward and do not use it for other purposes. Open pesticide containers only when they are sitting on a flat, stable surface. If they are tipped on an angle or are in an unstable position, they can easily spill over or leak out when the seal is broken.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Personal Protective Equipment

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Personal Protective Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Before opening a pesticide container, you and those you supervise must put on the appropriate personal protective equipment. By law, you must use all of the personal protective equipment that the pesticide labeling requires for mixers and loaders. Consider using additional personal protective equipment in certain mixing and loading situations.


Front protection -- If you may be splashed during mixing or loading tasks, or if you will need to lean against contaminated equipment during mixing or loading, consider wearing a bib-top apron made of butyl, nitrile, or foil-laminate material. The style of apron that includes built-in gloves and sleeves is especially protective. An apron:

  • keeps pesticides off the front of your clothing,
  • is cooler than a chemical-resistant protective suit, and
  • is easily removed at the end of the activity.


Face protection -- If you will be pouring liquid pesticide or adding dry pesticide to a liquid, consider wearing a face shield to keep splashes and wafting dusts off your face and out of your nose and mouth. A face shield is easy to put on, take off, and clean at the end of the day. If you need to wear a respirator, goggles or shielded safety glasses will fit better than a face shield.


Protection from dusts -- When you will be pouring dusts for long periods of time or working under conditions where dusts might swirl up into your face, consider wearing a dust/mist filtering respirator to keep from inhaling the dusts. Choose a dust/mist respirator with NIOSH/ MSHA approval. Also wear eye protection, such as shielded safety glasses, goggles, or a face shield, to keep the dusts out of your eyes.


Protection from vapors -- If you will be handling pesticides that produce vapors that may cause your eyes, nose, or throat to sting or that may cause you other discomfort, wear eye protection and a vapor-removing respirator with NIOSH/MSHA approval.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Protect Your Water Source

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Protect Your Water Source; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Protect your water source by keeping the water pipe or hose well above the level of the pesticide mixture. This prevents contamination of the hose and keeps pesticides from back-siphoning into the water source. If you are pumping water directly from the source into a mix tank, use a check valve, antisiphoning device, or backflow preventer to prevent back-siphoning if the pump fails. Backflow prevention devices are required by law in some areas.

Avoid mixing or loading pesticides in areas where a spill, leak, or overflow could allow pesticides to get into water systems. When mixing situations require you to use water from a faucet, well, stream, pond, or other water system, take special precautions. Place your mixing equipment where spills, leaks, and overflows will not flow toward a drain or into the water supply. If necessary, install dikes or other barriers, or grade the soil to divert the flow. If you will be mixing or loading at the site often, consider installing a collection pad or tray.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Care must be taken when using this product to prevent back-siphoning into wells. Check valves or antisiphoning devices must be used on all mixing and/or irrigation equipment."

"Do not spill or empty into streams, ponds, or any other body of water."

"Equipment should be equipped with automatic shutoff devices and valves to prevent backflow into the water source."




Mixing and Loading Practices, Rinsable containers

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Rinsable containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you are diluting pesticides, you should rinse the empty pesticide containers, unless the labeling directs you not to. Rinse containers as soon as they are empty because the remaining residues can dry quickly and become difficult to remove. Such rinsing often saves money because each rinse removes pesticide from the sides and bottom of the container and allows you to add it to the pesticide mixture.

If you rinse empty pesticide containers thoroughly, you usually can dispose of them as nonhazardous waste. Rinsed containers that are to be stored for later disposal should be clearly marked to indicate that they have been rinsed. Stickers are available for this purpose.

Glass, metal, and plastic containers, plastic-lined paper or cardboard containers, and even unlined paper or cardboard containers that can withstand the rinsing process should be triple rinsed or pressure rinsed. The liquid you use for rinsing should be the diluent (water, kerosene, high-grade oil, or another liquid) listed on the pesticide labeling for diluting the pesticide for application. After rinsing, add the rinsate to your pesticide mixture.

Pressure rinsing is an alternative to triple rinsing. Some pesticide equipment, including some closed system mixing and loading equipment, is equipped with a mechanism to pressure rinse pesticide containers when they are emptied. The system usually operates by:

  • inserting a high-pressure nozzle and hose into the container,
  • rotating the nozzle and rinsing for at least 30 seconds, and
  • draining the container thoroughly into the mix tank.

Some systems puncture the base or side of the container to insert the nozzle. Other systems insert the nozzle into the container's regular opening.

Typical pesticide labeling instructions about emptying containers include:

"Triple rinse containers and dispose of rinsate in area just treated."

"Triple rinse (or equivalent)."

"Completely empty bag into application equipment."




Mixing and Loading Practices, Select an Appropriate Area

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Select an Appropriate Area; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Choose the pesticide mixing and loading area carefully. It should be outdoors or in a well-ventilated area away from unprotected people, animals, food, other pesticides, and other items that might be contaminated. Choose a place with good light, especially if you are working at night. Be particularly careful not to mix or load pesticides indoors unless lighting and ventilation are adequate.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Spills

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Spills; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

To prevent spills, close containers after each use. Even if you plan to mix more pesticide soon, close the container tightly each time. Never leave a tank unattended while it is being filled. It may overflow and contaminate the area.

If you splash or spill a pesticide on yourself while mixing or loading, stop right away and remove your contaminated clothing. Wash thoroughly with a mild liquid detergent (or soap) and water as quickly as possible. Put on clean personal protective equipment. Then clean up the spill.




Mixing and Loading Practices, Transferring Pesticides

‘‘Mixing and Loading Practices, Transferring Pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When pouring any pesticide from its container, keep the container and pesticide below face level. This will avoid a splash, spill, or dust from getting on your face or into your eyes and mouth. If there is a wind outdoors or a strong air current indoors, stand so the pesticide cannot blow back on you.

If you are siphoning the pesticide from the container to the tank, never use your mouth to get the siphon started. You could easily get a mouthful of pesticide.




Mixing, Loading and Application

‘‘Mixing, Loading and Application; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Mixing, loading, and application are the primary pesticide handling tasks. They are also among the most hazardous aspects of a handler's job. Never try to cut corners where safety is concerned, and do not assume that every job will be like every other. For example, even though you are familiar with a pesticide, take time to read the labeling every time you buy the product -- new information may have been added.




Movement pathways

‘‘Movement pathways; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

A pesticide in solution can move across cell membranes and be taken up by plants. The amount of uptake is partly determined by the pesticide's water solubility. Adjuvants (additives) can enhance plant uptake of pesticides. Plant uptake of pesticide helps prevent runoff and leaching.

Pesticides may also volatilize or be blown away by the wind (erode). Volatilization from foliage is determined by the pesticide 's vapor pressure, which is affected by temperature. Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor when it is in equilibrium with the liquid from which it is derived. Pesticides with a high vapor pressure tend to volatilize. Those with a low vapor pressure are less likely to volatilize. The higher the temperature, the greater the volatilization.

Volatilization from moist soil is determined by moisture content of the soil and by the pesticide 's vapor pressure (table 4 -2), sorption, and water solubility. Because water competes for binding sites, pesticide volatilization is greatest in wet soils.

<I file="graphics\tab4_2.jpg"></H>


Airborne pesticide residue is subject to a variety of degradation processes including photo-degradation, oxidation, and hydrolysis. The residue is often rapidly degraded in the atmosphere. However, stable airborne pesticide residue and its degradation products may move from the application site and be deposited in dew, rainfall, or dust. This may result in pesticide redistribution within the application site or movement of pesticide offsite. The offsite airborne movement of a pesticide is known as drift. Drift can be harmful to both human and environmental health and may damage nearby crops. It is important to consider the weather conditions and the environmental behavior of pesticides to minimize drift.

Runoff is the movement of water over a sloping surface. Runoff can carry pesticides dissolved in water and pesticides sorbed to sediment. If heavy irrigation or rainfall shortly after application induces runoff, pesticide can be moved offsite. Heavy rainfall or overhead irrigation soon after application may also dislodge pesticide residue on foliage, adding to runoff losses. With time, residue on foliage is less likely to be washed off as it becomes incorporated in surface waxes.

Leaching is the removal of soluble materials by water passing downward through the soil. Ground water contamination occurs when pesticides move with infiltrating water through the soil profile to the water table. The closer the water table is to the surface, the greater the likelihood that it may become contaminated. Soil permeability also plays a key role in determining the likelihood of a pesticide to leach into ground water.




Name and address of manufacturer

‘‘Name and address of manufacturer; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The law requires the maker or distributor of a product to put the name and address of the company on the label. This is so you will know who made or sold the product.




Natural Controls

‘‘Natural Controls; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some natural forces act on all organisms, causing the populations to rise and fall. These natural forces act independently of humans and may either help or hinder pest control. You may not be able to alter the action of natural forces on a pest population, but you should be aware of their influence and take advantage of them when possible. Natural forces that affect pest populations include climate, natural enemies, natural barriers, availability of shelter, and food and water supplies.




Natural Controls, Climate

‘‘Natural Controls, Climate; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Weather conditions, especially temperature, day length, and humidity, affect pest activity and rate of reproduction. Pests may be killed or suppressed by rain, freezing temperatures, drought, or other adverse weather. Climate also affects pests indirectly by influencing the growth and development of their hosts. A population of plant-eating pests is related to growth of its host plants. Unusual weather conditions can change normal patterns so that increased or decreased damage results.




Natural Controls, Food and water supply

‘‘Natural Controls, Food and water supply; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pest populations can thrive only as long as their food and water supply lasts. Once the food source -- plant or animal -- is exhausted, the pests die or become inactive. The life cycle of many pests depends on the availability of water.




Natural Controls, Geographic barriers

‘‘Natural Controls, Geographic barriers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Features such as mountains and large bodies of water restrict the spread of many pests. Other features of the landscape can have similar effects.




Natural Controls, Natural enemies

‘‘Natural Controls, Natural enemies; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and mammals feed on some pests and help control their numbers. Many predatory and parasitic insect and insect-like species feed on other organisms, some of which are pests. Pathogens often suppress pest populations.




Natural Controls, Shelter

‘‘Natural Controls, Shelter; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The availability of shelter can affect some pest populations. Over-wintering sites and places to hide from predators are important to the survival of some pests.





Net contents

‘‘Net contents; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The front panel of the pesticide label tells you how much is in the container. This can be expressed as pounds or ounces for dry formulations and as gallons, quarts, pints, or fluid ounces for liquids. Liquid formulations also may list the pounds of active ingredient per gallon of product.




Parts of Pesticide Labeling

‘‘Parts of Pesticide Labeling; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The information on pesticide labeling usually is grouped under headings to make it easier to find the information you need. Some information is required by law to appear on a certain part of the labeling or under certain headings. Other information may be placed wherever the manufacturer chooses.




Penalties Under FIFRA

‘‘Penalties Under FIFRA; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you violate FIFRA, or regulations issued under it, you are subject to civil penalties. They can be as much as $5,000 for each offense ($1,000 for private applicators). Before EPA can fine you, you have the right to ask for a hearing in your city or county. Some violations of the law also may subject you to criminal penalties. These can be as much as $25,000 or one year in prison, or both, for commercial applicators; $1,000 and/or 30 days in prison for private applicators. States may establish higher penalties.




Persistence and mobility in soil

‘‘Persistence and mobility in soil; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Many factors govern the potential for pesticide contamination of ground water or surface water. These factors include soil properties, pesticide properties, hydraulic loading on the soil, and crop management practices.

Fate processes for a pesticide (fig.4 -1) can be grouped into those that affect persistence,(photo-degradation, chemical degradation, and microbial degradation) and those that affect mobility (sorption, plant uptake, volatilization, wind erosion, runoff, and leaching) Figure 4 -2 illustrates these groupings. Pesticide persistence and mobility are influenced by properties of the pesticide, soil properties, site conditions, weather, and management factors, such as pesticide application method. Some of the most important properties of a pesticide that can be used to predict environmental fate include half-life, soil sorption coefficient, water solubility, and vapor pressure.

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<I file="graphics\fig4_2.jpg"></H>


Pesticide persistence is often expressed in terms of field half-life. This is the length of time required for half of the original quantity to break down or dissipate from the field. The half-life values in table 4 -1 represent typical field half-live values. Persistence can vary greatly from one site to the next.

<I file="graphics\tab4_1.jpg"></H>


Pesticide mobility may result in redistribution within the application site or movement of some amount of pesticide offsite. After application, a pesticide may:

  • Dissolve in water and be taken up by plants, move in runoff, or leach
  • Volatilize or erode from foliage or soil with wind and become airborne
  • Attach (sorb) to soil organic matter and soil particles and either remain near the site of deposition or move with eroded soil in runoff or wind

Pesticide sorption, water solubility, and vapor pressure affect mobility. Mobility is also influenced by environmental and site characteristics including weather, topography, canopy and ground cover, and soil organic matter, texture, and structure.

Sorption is determined by the chemical characteristics of the pesticide. The specific mechanisms or the sorbing of a chemical to the soil are not easily defined. Numerous mechanisms may perate in a particular situation, including strong or weak ionic attraction, hydrophobic attraction, and hydrogen-bonding. Sorption of pesticides that are weak acids or bases is also influenced by the pH of the soil.

The sorption of a particular pesticide to a soil is measured in a laboratory by mixing water, pesticide, and soil. After equilibrium has been reached, the amount of pesticide remaining in solution is measured. The concentration of pesticide sorbed to the soil in the mixture is divided by the pesticide concentration still in solution. This yields the distribution coefficient, K<+ st="sub">d</+> (fig.4-3).

<I file="graphics\fig4_3.jpg"></H>


A low distribution coefficient indicates that more of the pesticide is in solution; a higher value indicates that more of the pesticide is sorbed to soil.

K<+ st="sub">oc</+> is the distribution coefficient K<+ st="sub">d</+> normalized for the amount of organic carbon that is in the tested soil (K<+ st="sub">d</+> / percent organic carbon). Soil organic carbon is directly proportional to soil organic matter, which is primarily responsible for a soil's sorption properties.



Pest Control

‘‘Pest Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Any time you are considering whether pest control is necessary, remember:

Control a pest only when it is causing or is expected to cause more harm than is reasonable to accept.

Use a control strategy that will reduce the pest numbers to an acceptable level.

Cause as little harm as possible to everything except the pest.

Even though a pest is present, it may not do much harm. It could cost more to control the pest than would be lost because of the pest's damage.




Pest Control Failures

‘‘Pest Control Failures; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Sometimes you may find that even though you applied a pesticide, the pest has not been controlled. You should review the situation to try to determine what went wrong. There are several possible reasons for the failure of chemical pest control.


Pest Resistance

Pesticides fail to control some pests because the pests are resistant to the pesticides. Consider this when planning pest control programs that rely on the use of pesticides. Rarely does any pesticide kill all the target pests. Each time a pesticide is used, it selectively kills the most susceptible pests. Some pests avoid the pesticide. Others withstand its effects. Pests that are not destroyed may pass along to their offspring the trait that allowed them to survive.

When one pesticide is used repeatedly in the same place against the same pest, the surviving pest population may be more resistant to the pesticide than the original population was. The opportunity for resistance is greater when a pesticide is used over a wide geographic area or when a pesticide is applied repeatedly to a rather small area where pest populations are isolated. A pesticide that leaves a residue that gradually loses its effectiveness over time will help select out resistance. Rotating pesticides may help reduce the development of pest resistance.


Other Reasons for Failure

Not every pesticide failure is caused by pest resistance. Make sure that you have used the correct pesticide and the correct dose and that you have applied it correctly. Sometimes a pesticide application fails to control a pest because the pest was not identified correctly and the wrong pesticide was chosen. Other applications fail because the pesticide was not applied at an appropriate time -- the pest may not have been in the area during the application or it may have been in a life cycle stage or location where it was not susceptible to the pesticide. Also remember that the pests that are present may be part of a new infestation that developed after the chemical was applied.




Pest Control Goals

‘‘Pest Control Goals; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Whenever you try to control a pest, you will want to achieve one of these three goals, or some combination of them:

  • prevention -- keeping a pest from becoming a problem,
  • suppression -- reducing pest numbers or damage to an acceptable level, and
  • eradication -- destroying an entire pest population.


Prevention may be a goal when the pest's presence or abundance can be predicted in advance. Continuous pests, by definition, are usually very predictable. Sporadic and potential pests may be predictable if you know the circumstances or conditions that favor their presence as pests. For example, some plant diseases occur only under certain environmental conditions. If such conditions are present, you can take steps to prevent the plant disease organisms from harming the desirable plants.


Suppression is a common goal in many pest situations. The intent is to reduce the number of pests to a level where the harm they cause is acceptable. Once a pest's presence is detected and control is deemed necessary, suppression and prevention often are joint goals. The right combination of control measures can often suppress the pests already present and prevent them from building up again to a level where they are causing unacceptable harm.


Eradication is a rare goal in outdoor pest situations because it is difficult to achieve. Usually the goal is prevention and/or suppression. Eradication is occasionally attempted when a foreign pest has been accidentally introduced, but is not yet established in an area. Such eradication strategies often are supported by the government. The Mediterranean fruit fly, gypsy moth, and fire ant control programs are examples.


Eradication is a more common goal indoors. Enclosed environments usually are smaller, less complex, and more easily controlled than outdoor areas. In many enclosed areas, such as dwellings, schools, office buildings, and health care, food processing, and food preparation facilities, certain pests cannot or will not be tolerated.





Pest Identification

‘‘Pest Identification; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Accurate identification is the first step in an effective pest management program. Never attempt a pest control program until you are sure of what the pest is. The more you know about the pest and the factors that influence its development and spread, the easier, more cost-effective, and more successful your pest control will be. Correct identification of a pest allows you to determine basic information about it, including its life cycle and the time that it is most susceptible to being controlled.

As a certified applicator, you must be familiar with the pests you are likely to encounter in the type of work in your certification category. To identify and control pests, you need to know:

  • the physical features of the pests likely to be encountered,
  • characteristics of the damage they cause,
  • their development and biology,
  • whether they are continuous, sporadic, or potential pests, and
  • what your control goal is.


If you need help in identifying a pest, contact your commodity or industry organization, Cooperative Extension educator, or state land-grant university.




Pest Management -- Overview of

‘‘Pest Management -- Overview of; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Farmers put IPM philosophy into practice by following these three steps:

Step 1. Use cultural methods, biological controls, and other alternatives to conventional chemical pesticides when practical.

Step 2. Use field scouting, pest forecasting, and economic thresholds to ensure that pesticides are used for real (not perceived) pest problems.

Step 3. Match pesticides with field site features so that the risk of contaminating water is minimized.



Pest Monitoring

‘‘Pest Monitoring; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

In most pest control situations, the area to be protected should be checked often. Regular monitoring can answer several important questions:

What kinds of pests are present?

Are the numbers great enough to warrant control?

When is the right time to begin control?

Have the control efforts successfully reduced the number of pests?

Monitoring of insect, insect-like, mollusk, and vertebrate pests usually is done by trapping or by scouting. Monitoring of weed pests usually is done by visual inspection. Monitoring for microbial pests is done by looking for the injury or damage they cause.

Monitoring also can include checking environmental conditions in the area. Temperature and moisture levels, especially humidity, are often important clues in predicting when a pest outbreak will occur or will hit threshold levels.

Monitoring is not necessary in situations where a pest is continually present and the threshold is zero. For example, there is zero tolerance for bacteria in operating rooms and other sterile areas of health care facilities. In these situations, routine pest control measures are taken to eradicate any pests and to prevent pests from entering the area.





Pest, definition of a

‘‘Pest, definition of a; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

A pest is any organism (plant or animal) that causes trouble, annoyance, or discomfort or becomes a nuisance by destroying food and fiber products, causing structural damage, or creating a poor environment for other organisms. Ecologically speaking, no organism is born a pest; it all depends on human perspective.



Pesticide Handling Decisions

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Before performing a pesticide handling task, you need to make some important decisions. For any pesticide handling activity, decide how to ensure the safety of yourself, others, and the environment. Before applying a pesticide, decide how to fit the application to your pest control situation.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Avoiding Exposure to Pesticides

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Avoiding Exposure to Pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The key to personal safety when handling pesticides is to avoid exposure to them. Always keep personal clothing, food, drinks, chewing gum, tobacco products, and other belongings away from where pesticides are stored or handled. They could become contaminated and poison or injure you when you use them.

When you take a break, wash your gloves on the outside, remove your gloves, and wash your hands and face thoroughly. Then you can safely chew gum, eat, drink, or smoke.

Avoid getting pesticide on yourself when you use the toilet. The skin in the genital area has been shown to absorb more pesticides than any other skin area. Wash your hands thoroughly before using the toilet, and be careful not to contaminate yourself from pesticides that may be on the outside of your clothing.

Be aware of other situations where you might be exposed to pesticides on the job. Protect yourself not only during mixing, loading, and application, but also during spill cleanup, repairing or maintaining equipment, and when transporting, storing, or disposing of pesticide containers that are open or have pesticides on their outer surface. Use personal protective equipment when necessary to keep pesticides from getting on your skin and in your mouth, eyes, or lungs.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Avoiding the Accidental Spread of Pesticides?

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Avoiding the Accidental Spread of Pesticides?; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Make it a habit to consider how you and those you supervise may accidentally spread pesticides. You may transfer pesticides to objects, people, and animals when you touch them with gloves that you wore while handling pesticides. When you sit in your car or on a chair while wearing your pesticide-handling outfit, you may leave pesticides behind. If you step into your office or home to answer a telephone call or use the toilet, you may leave pesticides on surfaces there.

Any time you take home or wear home your work clothing, personal protective equipment, or other items that are contaminated with pesticides, the pesticides can rub off on carpeting, furniture, and laundry items, and onto pets and people who come into contact with the contaminated materials. When you do not clean up a spill, no matter how small, other people or animals may get pesticide on themselves without knowing they are being exposed. Pesticides that you spread may harm whoever or whatever touches them.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Equipment

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Decide what equipment is necessary for your task. Check to make sure that you have all the equipment you need and that it is clean and in good operating condition. Make sure that anyone who will use the equipment knows how to operate it safely and correctly. Do not allow children, livestock or pets, or unauthorized people to touch the equipment. If they are injured or poisoned, you are responsible.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, People and Animals Out of the Area?

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, People and Animals Out of the Area?; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Do not allow anyone but trained and equipped pesticide handlers to be present during any pesticide handling task. You have the legal responsibility to make sure that no one is overexposed to pesticides that you or those you supervise are handling. Always warn workers, supervisors, and any other people who may be near the application site about which sites you plan to treat and how long they must stay out of those sites.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Personal Protective Equipment

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Personal Protective Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Decide what personal protective equipment you and the people you supervise will need. You must use what the labeling requires, and you may decide that you need additional equipment. Make sure that the personal protective equipment is clean and in good operating condition.

Be sure that you know how to use the personal protective equipment correctly. Put on and remove the equipment carefully so as not to contact any pesticides on the outside of it. Do not "cheat" on the personal protective equipment by taking off your gloves to make an equipment adjustment or by pulling your respirator away to scratch your face, wipe off sweat, or take a deep breath while you are still being exposed to the pesticide. Do not wipe your gloves on your clothing; this will contaminate your clothing, and pesticide may move through to your skin.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Personal Safety Considerations

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Personal Safety Considerations; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Make safety one of your first concerns every time you handle pesticides or allow someone else to handle them under your supervision. By making a few simple safety decisions, you can prevent many pesticide accidents and reduce the severity of others. Ask yourself the following basic safety questions.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Prepared for Emergencies?

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Prepared for Emergencies?; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Before you begin any pesticide handling activity, be sure you are prepared to deal with emergencies such as spills, injuries, and poisonings. Your emergency supplies should include at least:

  • Personal decontamination equipment -- Keep plenty of clean water, detergent, and paper towels nearby in a protected container to allow for fast decontamination in an emergency. Have an extra coverall-type garment nearby in case clothing becomes soaked or saturated with pesticide and must be removed.
  • First aid equipment -- Have a well-stocked first aid kit on hand. It should include a plastic eyewash dispenser that has a gentle flushing action.
  • Spill cleanup equipment -- Always keep a spill cleanup kit on hand. The kit should contain not only all the items needed for prompt and complete spill cleanup, but also personal protective equipment to protect you while you are dealing with the spill.

Know who to call in a medical emergency, and be familiar with the signs and symptoms of poisoning caused by the pesticides you handle. In a poisoning emergency, get the person out of the exposure at once, quickly summon medical assistance, and provide first aid.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Read the Labeling

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Read the Labeling; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Always read the applicable sections of the pesticide labeling before you open a pesticide container or begin any pesticide handling activity. Pesticide labeling contains precautions and instructions that you must follow to use the product safely and appropriately. It may contain very specific information that concerns the task you plan to do. Be sure you understand everything you need to know about the pesticide product before you are exposed to it.




Pesticide Handling Decisions, Supervision

‘‘Pesticide Handling Decisions, Supervision; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you supervise other people who handle pesticides, be sure that they are instructed about the personal and environmental hazards of pesticide use. They should know the ways they may be exposed, how to limit pesticide exposure and reduce the risk of heat stress, and how to respond in an emergency. They also should know how to use the pesticide labeling and other sources of information to learn about the pesticide they are using.

Be sure to provide them with specific instructions about the pesticides they will be handling and about the handling duties they will be performing. It is your legal responsibility to make sure that those you supervise are well informed and that they take all the precautions the pesticide labeling requires.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application Decisions

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application Decisions; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Take the time to think carefully about every pesticide application before you begin. The decisions you make will determine whether you will be using the pesticide safely and correctly. Making the wrong decisions can cause problems.

Incorrect use can result in wasted material, failure to control the pest, and damage to the target site (the animal, plant, or place to which you were applying the pesticide).

Misused pesticides can cause immediate as well as long-term harmful effects to humans, other living things, property, and other parts of the environment.

Misused pesticides can result in fines as well as legal actions charging you with liability for damages.

Pesticides are expensive. Using them incorrectly can be costly.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 1. Choice of Pesticide

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 1. Choice of Pesticide; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

One of the first things you must decide is which pesticide to use. Your knowledge of the situation may allow you to make that decision on your own. When in doubt, ask for help in choosing the safest and most effective pesticide for the job. Your pesticide dealer, a local Cooperative Extension office, trade association, or other experts may be able to help you choose.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 2. Choice of Formulation

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 2. Choice of Formulation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The pesticide you have chosen to apply may be available in several formulations. Each type has different advantages and disadvantages. Decide which one best fits your needs and the special requirements of your application site. When choosing among formulations, consider the following factors:




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 3. Application site

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 3. Application site; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some formulations are more likely than others to cause unwanted harm to surfaces, plants, and animals in the application site. Emulsifiable concentrates, for example, tend to pit or stain some surfaces, are easily absorbed through the skin of some animals, and may injure some plants. Dusts and powders are likely to leave a visible residue that may be unacceptable. Fumigant formulations are very likely to injure or kill all plants or animals in the application site.

When pesticides are to be broadcast over large areas, such as in mosquito, biting fly, and forestry pest control, the formulation must be chosen with great care to avoid poisoning nontarget plants and animals in the area.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"Spray droplets will permanently damage automobile paint."

"Do not apply directly to carpet, as discoloration may occur."

"Repeated applications may cause the appearance of visible spray residues on foliage."

"Do not allow spray to contact ferns, hickory, and maples, as injury may result."

"Do not apply over areas containing exposed food crops."

"Birds feeding on treated areas may be killed. Cover or incorporate granules."

"Beekeepers should be warned well in advance to remove hives a safe distance from areas to be treated."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 4. Equipment

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 4. Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The type of equipment available and in good working condition may limit your choice of formulation. Check to be sure you have all the equipment you need and that it is in good operating condition before you select a particular pesticide formulation.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 5. Pesticide movement

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 5. Pesticide movement; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Consider whether runoff is likely to carry the pesticide out of the application site. Granules, pellets, dusts, and other dry formulations that do not require water as a diluent can reduce the risk of runoff.

Consider whether air currents are likely to carry the pesticide away from the application site. If you must apply pesticides when wind or air currents are present, try to choose a formulation or application method that minimizes drift. Avoid dusts, high-pressure sprays, aerosols, and ultra-low-volume formulations. A granular or pellet formulation or a low-pressure spray with coarse droplets would be a good choice. For other types of formulations, consider using an adjuvant designed to reduce drift, such as a foaming agent, thickener, or sticker.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 6. Personal safety

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-Application -- 6. Personal safety; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticide formulations are more hazardous to people than others. Emulsifiable concentrates and ultra-low-volume concentrates often contain solvents that are hazardous themselves or that allow the pesticide to pass through the skin more quickly. Fumigants and aerosols are easily inhaled. Whenever you have a choice, select the formulation that is least hazardous to the people (or animals) who will be exposed.

Some adjuvants that you mix with your pesticide may increase your risk of exposure. Penetrants and emulsifiers may allow the pesticide to travel through the skin more quickly than usual. Stickers may increase your exposure by causing the pesticide to stick to personal protective equipment, other clothing, and skin. Spreaders and wetting agents may allow the pesticide to spread out more easily, causing the pesticide to contaminate larger areas of skin or personal protective equipment.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 7. Target pest

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 7. Target pest; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The type of formulation you select may depend on the pest you are trying to control. Sometimes an entire area must be covered with a pesticide to try to contact each pest. Other pests, however, can be controlled with baits or pesticides placed in a few locations, such as cracks and crevices, at the application site. Fog formulations are useful only for controlling pests present at the time of application. Systemic pesticides are useful for pests that are sucking fluid from or biting into plants or animals.

Surface characteristics -- Some pesticide formulations are better suited for some types of surfaces. Granules, for example, often provide good control on flat surfaces, but are less useful on surfaces where they are likely to slide or blow off. On a porous surface, consider using a wettable powder rather than an emulsifiable concentrate or oil-base pesticide. The wettable powder formulation will leave more pesticide on the surface.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 8. Cost

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 8. Cost; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides that are sold as concentrates to be diluted by the user usually are the least expensive and most convenient to purchase and transport. However, these pesticides often mean more risk during mixing and loading than pesticides that are sold already diluted. It is important that the pesticide application be as economical as possible, but other factors listed above may be even more important than cost when choosing the most appropriate pesticide formulation.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9. Conditions

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9. Conditions; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The conditions at the application site will influence application decisions. Consider factors that affect:

  • the effectiveness of the pesticide application,
  • the possible effects on you and those under your supervision who are involved in the application, and
  • the possible effects on other people and the environment.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9a. Conditions, Air movement

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9a. Conditions, Air movement; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Air movement from wind or ventilation can greatly alter the effectiveness of a pesticide application. Too much air movement can blow the pesticide off target and result in inadequate control. The amount of air movement that is acceptable depends on the type of formulation and application technique you will be using. The farther from the target surface a pesticide is applied, the less air movement is acceptable.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations are:

"Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas."

"Do not apply with aerial equipment when wind speed is greater than 10 mph."

"Coarse sprays are less likely to drift; therefore, do not use nozzles or nozzle configurations which dispense spray as fine droplets."

Sometimes you can offset air movement by allowing the air to blow the pesticide toward the area to be protected. You may be able to arrange for the ventilation system to be turned off during indoor applications.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9b. Conditions, Avoid Heat Stress

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9b. Conditions, Avoid Heat Stress; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Several factors work together to cause heat stress. Before you begin a pesticide handling task, think about whether any of these factors are likely to present a problem. Consider what adjustments you may need to make in the task itself or in the workplace conditions, including:

  • heat factors -- temperature, humidity, air movement, and sunlight,
  • workload,
  • personal protective equipment,
  • water,
  • scheduling adjustments.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9c. Conditions, Heat Factors and Workload

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9c. Conditions, Heat Factors and Workload; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

High temperatures, high humidity, and direct sunlight increase the likelihood that heat stress will occur. Air currents provide a cooling effect. Because hard work causes the body to produce heat, you are more likely to develop heat-related illness when you are working on foot than when you are driving a vehicle or flying an aircraft. You are even more likely to become overheated while lifting or carrying heavy containers or equipment.

Use fans and ventilation systems and provide shade whenever possible to reduce the heat. A work area or vehicle sometimes can be shaded by a tarp or canopy or provided with fans.

Allow time to adjust to the heat and workload. People who have become used to working in the heat are less likely to be affected by heat stress. To adjust to hot work environments, do short periods of light work in the heat for several days in a row; then gradually increase the work period and the workload for the next several days.

Schedule frequent breaks when the heat stress risk is high.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9d. Conditions, Other surfaces

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9d. Conditions, Other surfaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Porous surfaces such as wood, concrete, and fabric may absorb pesticides (especially liquid or gas applications) readily. If your objective is to saturate the material with pesticide, porous surfaces are an advantage. However, if the pesticide must remain on the surface to be effective, porous surfaces may require more pesticide to gain effective control. Pesticides may bounce or run off nonporous surfaces, making it difficult to achieve an even coverage.

Applying pesticides so that they remain on upright and slanted surfaces is also difficult. Consider using adjuvants, such as stickers, that help the pesticide cling to the treated surface.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"Use the lower rate on nonporous surfaces and the higher rate on porous surfaces."

"Activity on porous surfaces may be limited."

The cleanliness of the surface also affect the effectiveness of a pesticide application. Organic matter on the soil surface may absorb many pesticides and reduce the amount available to control the target pest. For applications to surfaces other than soil, excess dust and dirt may prevent some of the pesticide from reaching the surface. Consider removing these materials before you apply the pesticide.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"Remove existing plant material from surface before application."

"Application should be made to clean surfaces."

"Before application, clean up waste materials, dust, dirt, and all other debris."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9e. Conditions, Personal Protective Equipment

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9e. Conditions, Personal Protective Equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide handling tasks often require that you wear extra layers of clothing or chemical-resistant suits and other protective equipment. While this equipment keeps pesticides from getting on the skin, it also interferes with the natural body cooling that happens when sweat evaporates from the skin. You can get overheated quickly when wearing personal protective equipment.

Choose personal protective equipment designed to be as cool as possible or to provide a cooling effect, such as a powered air-purifying respirator or, when appropriate, back-vented coveralls.

Increase the shade or cooling by using awnings, fans, air conditioners, and cooling vests.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9f. Conditions, Plant surfaces

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9f. Conditions, Plant surfaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides tend to bounce or run off narrow, upright leaves. Broad, flat leaves tend to hold the pesticide longer. Foliar sprays may be prevented from entering the leaf by a thick wax and cuticle layer. The waxy surface also tends to cause a spray solution to form droplets and run off the leaves.

A dense layer of leaf hairs may hold the pesticide droplets away from the leaf surface, causing uneven distribution on the surface and allowing less chemical to be absorbed into the plant. However, a thin layer of leaf hairs may allow more even distribution on the surface and may cause the chemical to stay on the leaf surface longer than normal, allowing more chemical to be absorbed into the plant.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"Add spreader-sticker when applying to smooth or waxy surfaces."

"For best results on emerged weeds, add a surfactant and apply as a directed spray."

"In difficult wetting situations, such as mature waxy foliage, use the higher rate."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9g. Conditions, Rain or irrigation water

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9g. Conditions, Rain or irrigation water; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

In some pest control situations, you must consider whether rain or other watering will occur during or soon after a pesticide application. Sometimes such watering is helpful. Some pesticides that are applied to porous surfaces, especially soil, must be carried by water into the surface. Thorough watering also is needed to start the pesticide action after the application of some granular pesticides. Some protectant fungicides are designed to be applied to plants during or just before an expected rain or watering.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"Apply just before a light rain or water lightly after application to wash chemical down to soil."

"Begin applications when dew or rain occur and disease threatens."

Most pesticide applications, however, should not be made during or just before rain or watering. Rain, irrigation water, or other water that wets the surface soon after a surface application may interfere with pest control by washing off the pesticides or by causing them to leach downward. For outdoor applications, check the forecast and make your own weather observations. For applications to plants, check for an irrigation or watering schedule.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"Application may have to be repeated if rain occurs shortly after application."

"Following application, and during rainfall events that cause runoff, this chemical may reach surface water bodies including streams, rivers, and reservoirs."

"Avoid wash-off of sprayed foliage within 6 hours of application."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9h. Conditions, Scheduling Pesticide Applications

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9h. Conditions, Scheduling Pesticide Applications; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Each pesticide application involves a different set of conditions. Your responsibility is to assess the conditions and decide when to apply the pesticide and whether to take any special precautions.

Sometimes you have no choice about when to schedule a pesticide application. In those situations, be careful to apply the pesticides safely under the existing conditions. If you have a choice about timing consider applying during off-hours. Applying pesticides during very early morning hours, in the evening, or even at night -- both in outdoor situations and indoors in greenhouses, malls, office buildings, and other nonresidential structures -- has several advantages:

  • It is less likely that people other than pesticide handlers will be nearby.
  • It is more likely to be cooler, reducing concerns about heat stress and pesticide vaporization.
  • The wind is likely to be low, and indoor ventilation systems may be off or reduced.
  • There will be no direct sun in outdoor and glass-roofed sites.

When working during off-hours, have another person check on you often. Work only where there is enough light to allow you to apply the pesticide correctly and accurately.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9i. Conditions, Scheduling Adjustments

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9i. Conditions, Scheduling Adjustments; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

By taking the above steps, you will prevent most heat stress problems. But you must be ready for times when, regardless of your efforts, you or the handlers you supervise get dangerously hot. When this happens, you must:

Adjust work/rest cycles -- Decrease the length of work periods and increase the length of rest periods.

Try to schedule tasks requiring the heaviest workload or the most personal protective equipment during the coolest part of the work day.

Stop work -- Under extremely hot conditions when you cannot use cooling devices, you may need to stop work until conditions improve.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9j. Conditions, Soil surfaces

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9j. Conditions, Soil surfaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you are directing a pesticide application at a soil surface, consider the characteristics of the soil at the application site. Organic matter in soils may "tie up" pesticides, limiting their activity. Some pesticide labeling will allow you to use higher rates on soils with high organic matter. Soil texture also affects how pesticides work. Soils with fine particles (silts and clays) have the most surface area. The labeling may direct you to use higher rates for total coverage. Coarser soils (sands) have less surface area and may allow you to use lower rates.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these considerations include:

"In soils over 10 percent organic matter, use highest rate given."

"Use the lowest rate for coarser textured (light) soils or soils with lower organic matter. Use a medium rate on medium textured soils or soils containing more than 5 percent organic matter. Use the highest rate for fine textured (heavy) soils or soils containing more than 10 percent organic matter."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9k. Conditions, Surface moisture

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9k. Conditions, Surface moisture; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides often work best with moderate surface moisture. Too much wetness may keep the pesticide from adequately contacting the surface. Dryness may prevent the pesticide from spreading evenly over the surface and contacting the target pest.

A typical pesticide labeling statement that alerts you to this consideration is:

"Most effective when good surface moisture conditions exist."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9l. Conditions, Temperature, sunlight, and humidity

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9l. Conditions, Temperature, sunlight, and humidity; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Temperature may influence the effectiveness of some pesticide applications. Low temperature slows down or stops the activity of some pesticides. Low temperature also affects some pests by making them move about less, eat less, or change into another form. These pests may be less susceptible to some pesticide applications. A typical pesticide labeling statement that alerts you to this consideration is:

"Do not apply when temperatures are below 50oF."

High temperature and direct sunlight will influence the effectiveness of some pesticide applications. They cause some pesticides left exposed on top of surfaces to break down before there is adequate pest control. A typical pesticide labeling statement that alerts you to this consideration is:

"Do not apply when temperatures are above 95oF."

High temperature, especially combined with low humidity, increases the likelihood that some pesticides will vaporize. Once in vapor form, pesticides can drift and settle onto nontarget areas. When applying pesticides that you know or suspect can vaporize easily, consider the temperature. Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to this consideration include:

"At high air or surface temperatures, vapors from this product may injure susceptible plants."

"When applied to properly prepared soil, the liquid is converted into a gaseous fumigant."

"Do not breathe vapors or fumes."

These statements provide important clues that the pesticide is volatile and that you should take precautions to keep it from vaporizing and moving offsite. When the pesticide is applied as a spray, consider reducing the volatility by decreasing the pressure and increasing the droplet size.

Humidity also influences the effectiveness of some pesticide applications. For example, herbicides often work best when weeds are growing fast -- usually in high humidity and optimum temperature. However, these same conditions may make the protected plant more likely to be injured by herbicides. A typical pesticide labeling statement that alerts you to this consideration is:

"Apply when conditions are favorable for weed growth."




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9m. Conditions, Treated spaces

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9m. Conditions, Treated spaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some fogging and aerosol applications are used in unenclosed areas outdoors. However, most such pesticide applications are applied to an enclosed space. The space may be a building, hold, or silo, or a smaller enclosure, such as a room or vault. Sometimes you must create the enclosed space by using tarpaulins, sheets of plastic, or other chemical-resistant coverings. Consider whether these treated spaces are sealed well enough to prevent the pesticide from escaping too quickly when it is applied. If the enclosed space is not sealed well, consider using a different application method or taking steps to improve the seal. You may need to tighten openings, cover air vents, or fasten the covering more securely at the base.




Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9n. Conditions, Water

‘‘Pesticide Handling, Pre-application -- 9n. Conditions, Water; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Evaporation of sweat from the skin helps to cool the body and maintain a constant core temperature. Under hot conditions, the body produces a large amount of sweat. Unless the water that is lost in sweat is replaced, the body can no longer regulate its temperature correctly. Under conditions of high temperature, strong air currents, heavy workload, or direct sunlight, a body can lose as much as 1 gallon of water per hour.

Make a special effort to drink plenty of water or "sports drinks" during heat stress conditions. Do not rely on a feeling of thirst to tell you whether your body has enough water. You can lose a dangerous amount of water even before you begin to feel thirsty. You also may stop feeling thirsty long before you drink enough fluids to replace what you have lost.

Drink plenty of water before and after work.




Pesticide Labeling

‘‘Pesticide Labeling; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide product labeling is the main method of communication between a pesticide manufacturer and pesticide users. The information printed on or attached to the pesticide container is the label. Labeling includes the label plus all other information you receive from the manufacturer about the product when you buy it. The labeling may include brochures, leaflets, and other information that accompanies the pesticide product. Pesticide labeling gives you instructions on how to use the product safely and correctly. Pesticide users are required by law to comply with all the instructions and directions for use in pesticide labeling.




Pesticide Movement

‘‘Pesticide Movement; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides that move away from the release site may cause environmental contamination. This can occur indoors or outdoors and may cause harm in both environments. Pesticides move in several ways, including:

  • in air, through wind or through air currents generated by ventilation systems,
  • in water, through runoff or leaching,
  • on or in objects, plants, or animals (including humans) that move or are moved offsite.




Pesticide Movement: Air

‘‘Pesticide Movement: Air; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide movement away from the release site in the air is usually called drift. Pesticide particles, dusts, spray droplets, and vapors all may be carried offsite in the air. People who mix, load, and apply pesticides outdoors usually are aware of the ease with which pesticides drift offsite. People who handle pesticides indoors may not realize how easily some pesticides move offsite in the air currents created by ventilation systems and by forced-air heating and cooling systems.




Pesticide Movement: Air, Particles and droplets

‘‘Pesticide Movement: Air, Particles and droplets; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Lightweight particles, such as dusts and wettable powders, are easily carried by moving air. Granules and pellets are much heavier and tend to settle out of air quickly. Small spray droplets also are easily carried in air currents. High-pressure and fine nozzles produce very small spray droplets that are very likely to drift. Lower pressure and coarse nozzles produce larger droplets with less drift potential.

The likelihood that pesticide particles and spray droplets will drift offsite depends partly on the way they are released. Pesticides released close to the ground or floor are not as likely to be caught up in air currents as those released from a greater height. Pesticides applied in an upward direction or from an aircraft are the most likely to be carried on air currents.




Pesticide Movement: Air, Vapors

‘‘Pesticide Movement: Air, Vapors; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide vapors move about easily in air. Fumigant pesticides are intended to form a vapor when they are released. Persons using fumigants must take precautions to make sure the fumigant remains in a sealed container until it is released into the application site, which also must be sealed to prevent the vapor from escaping. Some nonfumigant pesticides also can vaporize and escape into the air. The labeling of volatile pesticides often includes warning statements that the pesticide handler should heed. Any time you release a volatile pesticide in an enclosed area, consider the hazards not only to yourself and to fellow workers, but also to people, animals, and plants in or near the release site or which may be in the area soon after the release.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to avoid drift include:

"Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from areas treated."

"Do not allow drift onto plants intended for food or feed."

"Drift from treated areas may be hazardous to aquatic organisms in neighboring areas."




Pesticide Movement: On or in Objects, Plants, or Animals

‘‘Pesticide Movement: On or in Objects, Plants, or Animals; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides can move away from the release site when they are on or in objects or organisms that move (or are moved) offsite. Pesticides may stick to shoes or clothing, to animal fur, or to blowing dust and be transferred to other surfaces. When pesticide handlers bring home or wear home contaminated personal protective equipment, work clothing, or other items, residues can rub off on carpeting, furniture, and laundry items and onto pets and people.

Pesticides may stick to treated surfaces, such as food or feed products that are to be sold. To protect consumers, there are legal limits (tolerances) for how much pesticide residue may safely remain on crops or animal products sold for food or feed. Products exceeding these tolerances are illegal and cannot be sold. Crops and animal products will not be over tolerance if the pesticides are applied according to product labeling. Illegal pesticide residues usually result when:

  • too much pesticide is applied to the crop or animal,
  • the days-to-harvest, days-to-grazing, or days-to-slaughter directions on the pesticide labeling are not obeyed, or
  • pesticides move out of the release site and contaminate plants or animals nearby.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Do not apply within five days of harvest."

"Do not apply under conditions involving possible drift to food, forage, or other plantings that might be damaged or the crops thereof rendered unfit for sale, use, or consumption."

"Remove meat animals from treated areas at least one day before slaughter if they were present at application or grazed treated areas within 21 days after application."

"Do not pasture or feed treated hay to lactating dairy cattle within 21 days after application."




Pesticide Movement: Water

‘‘Pesticide Movement: Water; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide particles and liquids may be carried offsite in water. Pesticides can enter water through:

  • drift, leaching, and runoff from nearby applications,
  • spills, leaks, and back-siphoning from nearby mixing, loading, storage, and equipment cleanup sites, and
  • improper disposal of pesticides, rinsates, and containers.

Most pesticide movement in water is across the treated surface (runoff) or downward from the surface (leaching). Runoff and leaching may occur when:

  • too much liquid pesticide is applied, leaked, or spilled onto a surface, or
  • too much rainwater, irrigation water, or other water gets onto a surface containing pesticide residue.

Runoff water in the outdoor environment may travel into drainage ditches, streams, ponds, or other surface water where the pesticides can be carried great distances offsite. Pesticides that leach downward through the soil in the outdoor environment sometimes reach the ground water.

Runoff water in the indoor environment may get into domestic water systems and from there into surface water and ground water. Runoff can flow into floor drains or other drains and into the water system. Sometimes a careless pesticide handler washes pesticide down a sink drain and into the water system.

Some pesticides can leach downwards in indoor environments. In a greenhouse, for example, pesticides may leach through the soil or other planting medium to floors or benches below. Some pesticides used indoors may be absorbed into carpets, wood, and other porous surfaces and remain trapped for a long time.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Do not contaminate water through runoff, spills, or improper disposal of excess pesticide, spray mixtures, or rinsates."

"Do not allow runoff or spray to contaminate wells, irrigation ditches, or any body of water used for irrigation or domestic purposes."

"Do not apply directly to water and wetlands (swamps, bogs, marshes, and potholes)."

"Maintain a buffer zone (lay-off distance) of 100 feet from bodies of water."

"This product is water soluble and can move with surface runoff water. Do not contaminate cropland, water, or irrigation ditches."




Pesticide selection, site-specific

‘‘Pesticide selection, site-specific; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Pesticides are defined as "any substance used for controlling, preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest." Tables 2 -1 and 2 -2 show the common pesticide classes and their target pests and functions.

Herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides represent more than 93 percent of the pesticide active ingredient used worldwide. Herbicides typically represent more than 50 percent of pesticide use, followed by insecticides (23 to 35 percent),and fungicides (11 to 14 percent).

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Pesticides in the Environment

‘‘Pesticides in the Environment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The environment is everything around us. It includes not only the natural elements that the word "environment" most often brings to mind, but also people and the manmade components of our world. The environment is not limited to the outdoors -- it also includes the indoor areas where we live and work.

The environment, then, is much more than the oceans and the ozone layer. It is air, soil, water, plants, animals, houses, restaurants, office buildings, and factories and all that they contain. Anyone who uses a pesticide -- indoors or outdoors, in a city or in the country -- must consider how that pesticide will affect the environment.

The user must ask two questions:

  • How will this pesticide affect the immediate environment where it is being used?
  • What are the dangers that the pesticide will move out of the use site and cause harm to other parts of the environment?

Pesticides can harm all types of environments if they are not used correctly. Responsible pesticide users know and follow good practices that achieve effective pest control with very little risk of environmental damage. Pesticide product labeling statements are intended to alert you to particular environmental concerns that a pesticide product poses. Use good judgment, too. The lack of a particular precautionary statement does not necessarily mean that the product does not pose a hazard to the environment.

Both the public and the EPA are becoming increasingly concerned about harmful effects on the environment from pesticide use. As a result, the EPA is looking closely at environmental effects when it considers new registration applications. It also is reexamining existing pesticide registrations. Previously, the primary reason for the EPA classifying a pesticide as a restricted-use product was its potential as a hazard to humans. Now, more and more pesticide labels list environmental effects, such as contamination of ground water or toxicity to birds or aquatic invertebrate animals, as a reason for restriction.




Pests

‘‘Pests; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A pest is anything that:

  • competes with humans, domestic animals, or desirable plants for food or water,
  • injures humans, animals, desirable plants, structures, or possessions,
  • spreads disease to humans, domestic animals, wildlife, or desirable plants,
  • annoys humans or domestic animals.




PESTS AND PEST CONTROL

‘‘PESTS AND PEST CONTROL; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Correct identification of pests and a knowledge of their development and behavior are keys to effective pest control. In this unit, pests are grouped into four broad categories:

  • insects and insect-like pests,
  • weeds,
  • plant diseases, and
  • vertebrates.

This unit will give you some basic facts about agricultural pests, their life cycles, and how they commonly develop and spread, but it is not intended to make you an expert in pest identification. Accurate detection, identification, and diagnosis of pest problems is a science -- experience is important. When you find a pest or pest problem you cannot identify, ask an expert to help you.

When you have identified a pest, you must decide how to manage it. Remember that even though a pest is present, it may not be very harmful. Consider whether the cost of control would be more than the economic loss from the pest's damage.

If control is necessary, decide whether you need to prevent the pest from becoming a problem, suppress the numbers of pests or the level of their damage, or eradicate the entire pest population. Then, using what you have learned about integrated pest management, choose the methods that will do a cost- effective job of managing the pest while causing the least possible harm to people and the environment.

Pesticides are a valuable tool, but you should use them only when and where they are needed. Consider chemical control:

  • when pest numbers or the damage the pests are causing are unacceptable, and other pest management methods will not provide effective control, or
  • when your knowledge of the situation indicates that you need to use a pesticide preventively. For example, you may know that temperature and humidity conditions make it likely that a plant disease will develop.

Remember, never try to control any pest until you know what it is. If you use a pesticide, follow the labeling directions carefully.




Pests of agricultural and horticultural crops

‘‘Pests of agricultural and horticultural crops; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Insects and related arthropods- Invertebrate animals, such as caterpillars, bugs, beetles, and mites that cause injury by feeding on plants and animals and by transmitting pathogens that cause diseases.

Nematodes- Microscopic, multicellular, unsegmented roundworms that parasitize animals and plants. Most nematodes that attack agricultural crops feed on the roots, but a few feed aboveground on inside stems and leaves.

Pathogens- Disease-causing bacteria, fungi, viruses, and related organisms. Note that a pathogen is the agent whose injury causes a disease, whereas a disease is the process of injury that the pathogen causes. Most pathogens are too small to be seen with the naked eye, while diseases manifest themselves visually as symptoms and signs.

Vertebrates-Any native or introduced, wild or feral, nonhuman species of vertebrate animal that is detrimental to one or more persons as a health hazard or general nuisance, or by destroying food, fiber, or natural resources. Vertebrate feeding in agricultural crops causes the majority of direct damage including animals, such as mice, rats, and birds. Vertebrates may also cause damage indirectly by transmitting human diseases.

Weeds-Undesirable plants that reduce crop yield and quality by competing for space, water, and nutrients; weeds also may harbor crop-attacking insects and pathogens. Weeds also include plants that interfere with other human activities, such as by prolifically growing in waterways, or those that cause discomfort, such as skin irritation or hay fever.



Pests, Types of

‘‘Pests, Types of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Types of pests include:

  • insects, such as roaches, termites, mosquitoes, aphids, beetles, fleas, and caterpillars,
  • insect-like organisms, such as mites, ticks, and spiders,
  • microbial organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses, and mycoplasmas,
  • weeds, which are any plants growing where they are not wanted,
  • mollusks, such as snails, slugs, and shipworms, and
  • vertebrates, such as rats, mice, other rodents, birds, fish, and snakes.


Most organisms are not pests. A species may be a pest in some situations and not in others. An organism should not be considered a pest until it is proven to be one. Categories of pests include:

  • continuous pests that are nearly always present and require regular control.
  • sporadic, migratory, or cyclical pests that require control occasionally or intermittently.
  • potential pests that do not require control under normal conditions, but may require control in certain circumstances.




Physical or Chemical Hazards

‘‘Physical or Chemical Hazards; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

This section of the pesticide labeling will tell you of any special fire, explosion, or chemical hazards the product may pose. For example, it will alert you if the product is so flammable that you need to be especially careful to keep it away from heat or open flame or if it is so corrosive that it must be stored in a corrosion-resistant container. When pesticides are flammable, smoking while handling them is extremely hazardous.

NOTE: The physical or chemical hazard statements are not located in the same place in all pesticide labeling. Some labeling groups them in a box under the heading "Physical or Chemical Hazards." Other labeling may list them on the front panel of the label beneath the signal word. Still other labeling may list the hazards in paragraph form under headings such as "Note" or "Important." If there are no unusual physical or chemical hazards, there may be no statement in the labeling.




Plant Disease Agents

‘‘Plant Disease Agents; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

A plant disease is any harmful condition that makes a plant different from a normal plant in its appearance or function. Plant diseases caused by biological agents (pathogens) are the ones most important for you to know about, because pesticides are often used to control them. Pathogens include:

  • fungi,
  • bacteria, and
  • viruses, viroids, and mycoplasmas.

Parasitic seed plants (discussed in the section on weeds) and nematodes (discussed in the section on insect-like pests) are sometimes considered plant disease agents because of the type of injury they cause to the host plant.


Plant Disease, Control

‘‘Plant Disease, Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

At present, plant disease control measures are mainly preventive. Once a plant or plant product is infected and symptoms appear, few control methods -- including pesticides -- are effective.

The main methods for control of plant diseases include:

  • host resistance,
  • cultural control,
  • mechanical control,
  • sanitation, and
  • chemical control.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Chemicals used to control plant disease pathogens include fungicides and bactericides (disinfectants). The general term "fungicide" is often used to describe pesticides that combat both fungi and bacteria.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Coverage

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Coverage; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Almost all plant disease control chemicals are applied as cover sprays. The purpose is to reach and protect all potential sites of infection. Unlike insects and other pests, disease organisms do not move once they contact the plant. For good disease control, you need to apply fungicides and bactericides evenly over the entire plant surface.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Mode of action

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Mode of action; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Fungicides may be classified as protectants, eradicants, and systemics.

Protectants must be applied before or during infection of the plant by the pathogen. In order to be effective, a protectant fungicide must either be persistent or be applied repeatedly. Most chemicals now available to combat plant diseases are protectants.

Eradicants are less common and are applied after infection has occurred. They act on contact by killing the organism or by preventing its further growth and reproduction.

Systemics are used to kill disease organisms on living plants. Systemic chemicals are transported in the sap stream from the application site to other plant parts. This type of chemical may act as both a protectant and an eradicant.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Other pesticides

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Other pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticides that are not fungicides are used for indirect control of plant diseases. Insecticides and miticides may be used to control the insects and mites that spread plant disease organisms or that damage the plant in a way that makes it more vulnerable to plant disease. Sometimes herbicides are used to eliminate weeds that may harbor disease-causing organisms.



Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Persistence

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Persistence; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Fungicides vary in the length of time they remain active after they are applied. A nonpersistent fungicide controls the pathogen on contact or shortly after and then is no longer chemically active against the plant disease. A persistent fungicide can retain its chemical effectiveness for a period of time after application.

The pesticide label will tell you how frequently you need to apply the product. The interval may depend not only on the persistence of the pesticide, but also on:

  • environmental conditions (high humidity and warm temperatures may make more frequent applications necessary), and
  • whether rainfall, irrigation, or watering washes the fungicide off plant surfaces.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Secondary infections

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Secondary infections; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

A few fungicides prevent the plant- disease organisms from reproducing in an infected plant. The fungicides prevent spore production in existing leaf infections and reduce the likelihood of spread. These fungicides are used, for example, against new apple scab infections, and they prevent spore production in existing leaf infections.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Seed treatment

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Seed treatment; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Seeds are often treated with a fungicide to control disease-causing organisms in or on the seeds. Chemical seed treatment is also used to protect seeds from disease organisms that cause seed or seedling rots and to protect seedlings from infection by damping-off fungi in the soil.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Soil applications

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Soil applications; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

In-row and spot applications of soil fungicides at the time of planting protect young seedlings from many disease organisms in the soil. Soil fungicides may also be used to protect the roots of established plants from infection by pathogens. These fungicides are applied as drenches and must move down through the soil into the root zone at a concentration adequate for control.


Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Timing

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Chemical Control, Timing; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Successful chemical control of plant diseases requires proper timing. You usually must begin plant disease control before infection occurs. Apply the protectant chemical when environmental conditions are expected to be ideal for the development of plant disease organisms. If you do not apply the protectant in time, major crop damage may result or you may need to use the more expensive eradicant sprays.

Most fungicides prevent or inhibit disease growth for a period of time. Once the fungicide is no longer effective, the controlled disease may start to grow again or to produce spores and spread. For this reason, you may need to apply the fungicide at regular intervals. For example, sprays that control late blight of potato must be applied every few days when cool, moist conditions favor infection.

Frequent applications are common during production of some fruit and vegetable crops. Different disease threats occur throughout the growing season, and many of the disease-causing organisms are capable of causing repeated infections. Some crops, however, are vulnerable to disease only during a short time period and a single application of fungicide may provide adequate protection. Snow mold on turf is often controlled with a single fungicide application just before a snowfall.


Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

For a plant disease to develop, a pathogen and its host must come together under the right environmental conditions. Cultural practices can prevent an infection by altering the environment, the condition of the host, or the behavior of the pathogen.


Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control, Crop rotation

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control, Crop rotation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pathogenic organisms can usually carry over from one growing season to the next in the soil or in plant debris. Continual production of the same or closely related crops on the same piece of land leads to disease buildup. Crop rotation reduces the buildup of pathogens but seldom provides complete disease control.

Obviously, crop rotation is not always possible, practical, or desirable. Perennial crops such as trees, woody ornamentals, and turfgrass must remain in one location for many years. Some crops, such as corn, cotton, or wheat, often are more practical to grow on the same land year after year despite the potential for a buildup of plant disease pathogens.


Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control, Planting time

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control, Planting time; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Cool-weather crops, such as spinach, peas, and some turfgrass, are subject to attack by certain diseases if planted when the temperatures are warm. They often emerge and establish poorly under such conditions. Conversely, beans, melons, and many flowers should be planted under warm conditions to avoid disease.


Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control, Seed aging

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Cultural Control, Seed aging; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some seed pathogens can be killed by holding the seed in storage. Proper storage conditions are essential to ensure that seed viability is not lowered.


Plant Disease, Control -- Host Resistance

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Host Resistance; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The use of disease-resistant varieties is usually one of the most effective, long-lasting, and economical ways to control plant disease.

In some crop and greenhouse situations, resistant varieties are the only way to ensure continued production. For many diseases in low-value forage and field crops, for example, chemical controls are too costly. For other diseases, such as many soil-borne pathogens, no economical or effective chemical control method is available.


Plant Disease, Control -- Mechanical Control

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Mechanical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Heat kills many pathogens. In greenhouses, soil sterilized by heat helps control some plant diseases. Hot water treatments are effective in producing clean seed and planting materials. Seed and vegetative propagation materials (such as roots, bulbs, corms, and tubers) may be treated before planting to control some fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases.

In greenhouses and other enclosed growing areas, as well as in areas where food and feed are stored, you may be able to control temperature and humidity to keep pathogens from building up rapidly enough to cause damage.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sanitation practices help to prevent and suppress some plant diseases by removing the pathogens themselves or their sources of food and shelter.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Clean planting sites

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Clean planting sites; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

In some crops, you can control or reduce certain plant disease pathogens by eliminating other nearby plants that are hosts for the same disease organisms. These may be:

  • plants that harbor the pathogens, such as weeds around field borders, ditch banks, and hedgerows, or
  • plants the organism requires for one stage of its life cycle. An apple grower, for example, can control cedar apple rust by eliminating nearby cedar (juniper) trees.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Crop residue management

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Crop residue management; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Infected crop residues often provide an ideal environment for carryover of many pathogens. In some cases the pathogens increase greatly in residues. Three basic techniques are used to manage crop residues:

  • deep plowing buries pathogen-infested residues and surface soil and replaces them with soil that is relatively free from pathogens,
  • fallowing reduces carryover of pathogens because their food source decays and is no longer available,
  • burning kills some pathogens and removes the residue they live on. Burning may not be legal in some areas.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Disinfecting equipment and tools

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Disinfecting equipment and tools; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some plant diseases can be spread from plant to plant, field to field, and crop to crop by workers and their equipment. Disinfecting equipment, tools, and clothing with a product such as bleach (sodium hypochlorite) before moving from an infected area to a disease-free area can prevent or delay disease spread. This method of disease spread is especially important in high humidity and wet field conditions, because the pathogens are transported in the droplets of water that form on the equipment, tools, and skin.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Pathogen-free propagation

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Pathogen-free propagation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plant disease pathogens are frequently carried in or on vegetative propagation materials (such as roots, bulbs, tubers, corms, and cuttings). Use of clean planting stock is especially important in the culture of certain high-value agricultural and ornamental crops. These stock plants must be grown in pathogen-free greenhouses or in sites isolated from growing areas for these crops. When you plan for isolation, consider how far the pathogen may spread, how the pathogen is spread, and the distance between potential growing sites.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Pathogen-free seed stock

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Pathogen-free seed stock; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Using clean seed stock is an important way to reduce the spread of plant disease. Seeds are often grown in arid areas where the amount of moisture is controlled by an irrigation system. This eliminates infection by diseases that require high moisture and humidity levels.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Pathogen-free storage

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Pathogen-free storage; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To control disease in food and feed storage areas, you must first have good sanitation in the facility before storage. Then be sure the crop is relatively pathogen-free at the time it is put into storage.


Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Removing infected plants

‘‘Plant Disease, Control -- Sanitation, Removing infected plants; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

You often can control diseases by systematically removing infected plants or plant parts before the disease pathogen spreads to other "clean" plants. This method is especially important for the control of some viral and mycoplasma pathogens for which no other controls are available.


Plant Disease, Diagnosis

‘‘Plant Disease, Diagnosis; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

If you try to control a plant disease without having enough information about it, you usually will fail. The first step in disease management is to diagnose the disease correctly.

You can recognize diseased plants by comparing them with healthy plants. To recognize a disease condition, you must know the plant's normal growth habits. When you are trying to identify the cause of a plant disease, you need to observe:

  • symptoms -- the host plant's reaction to the disease agent, and
  • signs -- visible presence of the disease agent.

Many plant diseases cause similar symptoms in the host plants. Such things as leaf spots, wilts, galls on roots, or stunted growth may be caused by many different agents, including many that are not pathogens. For example, the symptoms may be a result of mechanical injury, improperly applied fertilizers and pesticides, or frost.

Often the only way to pinpoint the cause is by finding the observable signs that the particular disease agent is present -- such as fungal spores and mycelium or bacterial ooze.

Some pathogenic diseases occur regularly on specific agricultural, ornamental, and forestry plantings. For these diseases, noticing specific symptoms may be enough to allow you to correctly identify the cause. But many less common pathogenic disease agents, including some fungi and bacteria, may have to be positively identified by an expert with access to sophisticated laboratory procedures.


Plant Diseases, Pathogenic -- Bacteria

‘‘Plant Diseases, Pathogenic -- Bacteria; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Bacteria are microscopic, one-celled organisms. They usually reproduce by single cell division. Each new cell is exactly like the parent cell. Bacteria can build up quickly under warm, humid weather conditions. Some can divide every 30 minutes. Bacteria may attack any part of a plant, either above or below the soil surface. Many leaf spots and rots are caused by bacteria.


Plant Diseases, Pathogenic -- Fungi

‘‘Plant Diseases, Pathogenic -- Fungi; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Fungi are plants that lack chlorophyll and cannot make their own food. They get food by living on other organisms. Some fungi live on dead or decaying organic matter. Most fungi are beneficial because they help release nutrients from dead plants and animals and thus contribute to soil fertility. These fungi can be a pest problem when they rot or discolor wood. They can do considerable damage to buildings and lumber that are improperly ventilated or in contact with water or high humidity.

Most fungi that cause plant diseases are parasites on living plants. They may attack plants and plant products both above and below the soil surface. Some fungus pathogens attack many plant species, but others are restricted to only one host species.

Most fungi reproduce by spores, which function about the same way seeds do. Fungus spores are often microscopic in size and are produced in tremendous numbers. Some spores can survive for weeks, months, or even years without a host plant. Excessive water or high humidity are nearly always essential for spore germination and active fungal growth. Spores can spread from plant to plant and crop to crop through wind, rain, irrigation water, insects, and insect-like pests, and by people through infected clothing and equipment.

Fungal infections frequently are identified by the vegetative body of the fungus (mycelium) and the fruiting bodies that produce the spores. These can usually be seen with the naked eye. Symptoms of fungal infections include soft rot of fruits, plant stunting, smuts, rusts, leaf spots, wilting, and thickening or curling of leaves. Powdery and downy mildew, smut, root and stem rots, and sooty and slime molds are examples of fungus diseases.


Plant Diseases, Pathogenic -- Viruses, Viroids, and Mycoplasmas

‘‘Plant Diseases, Pathogenic -- Viruses, Viroids, and Mycoplasmas; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Viruses and mycoplasmas are so small that they cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope. They are generally recognized by their effects on plants. Often it is difficult to distinguish between diseases caused by viruses or mycoplasmas and those caused by other plant disease agents such as fungi and bacteria.

Usually, the best way to identify a virus is to compare the symptoms with pictures and descriptions of diseased plants for which a positive identification has been made. Other methods require more sophisticated testing, such as inoculating indicator plants and observing the results or using specifically identified antibodies to test for the presence of the organism.

Viruses depend on other living organisms for food and to reproduce. They cannot exist separately from the host for very long. Viruses are commonly spread from plant to plant by mites and by aphids, leafhoppers, whiteflies, and other plant- feeding insects. They may be carried along with nematodes, fungus spores, and pollen, and may be spread by people through cultivation practices, such as pruning and grafting. A few are spread in the seeds of the infected plant.

Viruses can induce a wide variety of responses in host plants. Most often, they stunt plant growth and/or alter the plant's natural color. Viruses can cause abnormal formation of many parts of an infected plant, including the roots, stems, leaves, and fruit. Mosaic diseases, with their characteristic light and dark blotchy patterning, usually are caused by viruses. Viroids are similar to viruses in many ways, but they are even smaller and lack the outer layer of protein that viruses have. Only a few plant diseases are known to be viroid-caused, but viroids are the suspected cause of many other plant and animal disorders. Viroids are spread mostly through infected plant stock. People can spread infected plant sap during plant propagation and other cultural practices. A few viroids are known to be transmitted with pollen and seeds. Mycoplasmas are the smallest known independently living organisms. They can reproduce and exist apart from other living organisms. They obtain their food from plants. Yellows diseases and some stunts are caused by mycoplasmas. Most mycoplasmas are spread by insects, most commonly by leafhoppers. Mites may also spread them. Mycoplasmas are also readily spread among woody plants by grafting.


Plant Diseases, Pathogenic

‘‘Plant Diseases, Pathogenic; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pathogens that cause plant disease are parasites that live and feed on plant debris and on or in host plants. Many can be passed from one plant to another. Three factors are required before a pathogenic disease can develop -- a susceptible host plant, a pathogenic agent, and an environment favorable for development of the pathogen.

A pathogenic disease depends on the life cycle of the parasite and on environmental conditions. Temperature and moisture, for example, affect the activity of the parasite, the ease with which a plant becomes diseased, and the way the disease develops.

The disease process starts when the parasite arrives at a part of a plant where infection can occur. If environmental conditions are favorable, the parasite will begin to develop. If the parasite enters the plant, the infection starts. The plant is diseased when it responds to the parasite.

The three main ways a plant responds are:

  • overdevelopment of tissue, such as galls, swellings, and leaf curls,
  • underdevelopment of tissue, such as stunting, lack of chlorophyll, and incomplete development of organs, and
  • death of tissue, such as blights, leaf spots, wilting, and cankers.

The parasites that cause plant diseases may be spread by wind; rain; insects, birds, snails, slugs, and earthworms; transplant soil; nursery grafts; vegetative propagation (especially in strawberries, potatoes, and many flowers and ornamentals); contaminated equipment and tools; infected seed stock; pollen; dust storms; irrigation water; and people.


Post-Application

‘‘Post-Application; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

As soon as you finish mixing, loading, or applying a pesticide, you should do a few important followup tasks. Take the time to clean up properly. Wash your pesticide equipment and then wash yourself. Return equipment to its designated place and safely store or dispose of all pesticide materials and other chemicals. Be sure that your work site presents no hazards to people or the environment. Never leave the site unattended until everything has been cleaned up and put away. While you can still remember the facts, make a record of what you have applied and the conditions at the application site.




Post-Application, Benefits of correct cleaning

‘‘Post-Application, Benefits of correct cleaning; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Sloppy cleanup practices are one of the main causes of equipment failure or malfunction. Never keep excess pesticides in your equipment for more than a short time. Even small amounts can damage equipment.

Liquid pesticides left in the equipment may quickly corrode the equipment and clog or corrode the nozzle openings. They may cause the equipment to leak or cause the nozzles to release too little or too much pesticide when the equipment is operated. Some liquid pesticides change if they are stored after being diluted and will not be suitable for application later. Some will settle out and form a solid clump at the bottom of the tank that even mechanical agitation cannot remix. Others will separate into two or more liquids that cannot be remixed easily. Liquid pesticides that are allowed to stay in the equipment until they are totally dry may be impossible to remove completely.

Dry pesticides that become wet through humidity, rain, dew, or other moisture tend to clump and stick to the sides and hopper openings. They cannot be applied later, and cannot be easily removed from the equipment.




Post-Application, Cleaning procedures

‘‘Post-Application, Cleaning procedures; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

After the equipment is empty, clean both the inside and outside thoroughly, including nozzles or hopper openings. Sometimes you may need to use the diluent used in the pesticide mixture (kerosene or high-grade oil), special cleaning agents, or water under pressure. In other cases, ordinary water may be enough.




Post-Application, Collect the rinsate

‘‘Post-Application, Collect the rinsate; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Rinsate -- the liquid that results from the washing process. If you do not have a way to reuse or dispose of the rinsate, limit the amount of material you use, so you will create less waste.

Carefully wash any vehicles, such as vans and trucks, that may be used for transporting unprotected workers or for family use. People have been poisoned by riding in vehicles that had been used to apply pesticides or to perform flagging for aerial applications.

Rinsates -- Remember that the rinsates you create when you clean your equipment contain pesticides and can harm people and the environment. Do not allow rinsates to flow into water systems, including sink or floor drains, rainwater culverts, wells, streams, lakes, and rivers. Do not create puddles that children, other unprotected persons, or animals could get into.

You may use equipment rinsate as a diluent for future pesticide mixtures, if:

  • the pesticide in the rinsate is labeled for use on the target site where the new mixture is to be applied,
  • the amount of pesticide in the rinsate plus the amount of pesticide product in the mixture does not exceed the labeling rate for the target site,
  • the rinsate is used to dilute a mixture containing the same pesticide or a compatible pesticide,
  • you comply with other application instructions specified on the labeling, including any specific labeling instructions for application as an excess pesticide.

The rinsate cannot be added to a pesticide mixture if:

  • the pesticide labeling does not list the rinsate as an acceptable diluent; for example, if the rinsate contains a strongly acidic or alkaline neutralizing agent,
  • the rinsate contains strong cleaning agents, such as bleach or ammonia, that might harm the plant, animal, or surface to which the pesticide will be applied,
  • the rinsate would alter the pesticide mixture and make it unusable; for example, if the pesticides are physically or chemically incompatible.

If you have any rinsates that you cannot use, dispose of them as you would excess pesticides.




Post-Application, Equipment Cleaning

‘‘Post-Application, Equipment Cleaning; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Always clean mixing, loading, and application equipment as soon as you finish using it -- do not leave equipment with pesticides on it or in it at the mixing and loading site or at the application site. When the job is completed and the tank or hopper is empty, return the equipment to the designated equipment cleanup area. Avoid washing equipment repeatedly in the same location unless you use a containment pad or tray. Over time, the flooring or soil in a frequently used area can become contaminated with large amounts of pesticides. This contamination increases the likelihood of harmful effects to people and animals and increases the likelihood of runoff or leaching into water systems. Also avoid keeping pesticide-contaminated equipment in one location all the time. Pesticides may move off the outside of the equipment and onto the floor or soil.

Do not assign a worker to clean pesticide-contaminated equipment unless that person has been instructed in the basic rules of pesticide safety. Remember that equipment cleaning presents as great a risk of exposure to pesticides as do many other pesticide handling tasks and that all parts of the equipment are likely to have pesticides or pesticide residues on them. When you clean pesticide-contaminated equipment, wear the personal protective equipment that the labeling requires for handling jobs, plus a chemical-resistant apron.




Post-Application, Personal Cleanup

‘‘Post-Application, Personal Cleanup; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you finish working with pesticides or pesticide-contaminated equipment, take time for personal cleanup. Wash the outside of your gloves first, before taking them off. Then carefully peel back your personal protective equipment to avoid getting pesticides on your skin. Remove any other clothing that has pesticide on it.

If you cannot take a shower right away, use a mild liquid detergent and warm water to wash your face, hands, forearms, and any other area that may have pesticides on it. As soon as you can -- no later than the end of the work day -- wash your whole body and hair thoroughly with a mild liquid detergent and plenty of warm water.

When you remove your personal protective equipment and work clothing, put it in a plastic box or bag until it can be laundered. Do not allow children or pets to play with these items. Do not wash work clothing and personal protective equipment in the same wash water with the family laundry.




Post-Application, Pesticide labeling instructions

‘‘Post-Application, Pesticide labeling instructions; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Do not store spray solution in tank overnight."

"Clean application equipment thoroughly after use by flushing with water in a safe place."

"Do not contaminate water by cleaning of equipment."

"Flush all application equipment with fuel oil, kerosene or a similar type of petroleum solvent immediately after use. Fill pumps and meters with new motor oil or a 505 motor oil/fuel oil mixture before storing. Do not use water. Dispose of rinsate by incorporation into area just treated or by other approved means."




Recordkeeping

‘‘Recordkeeping; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Keeping records of pesticide use and application is a good idea. Records can establish proof of proper use. If an error has been made, records are helpful in finding the cause. They also can provide you with information to use in response to claims of excess residues or damages.

Good records can save you money. They allow you to compare the results obtained from using different pesticides, different formulations, and different equipment, and from applying under various site conditions. You can improve your pest-control practices and your efficiency.

Records can help you reduce pesticide mistakes or misuse. If a pest is not controlled, if damage has occurred in the target area, or if a pesticide has moved off the target area and caused problems, you may be able to determine what went wrong. Records may help you to determine that a particular pesticide, a particular formulation, a type of application equipment, or some condition in the treatment area caused the problem. Then you can take steps to avoid such a situation in future pesticide applications.

Good records can help you better determine the exact amount of pesticide you'll need. Some pesticides do not store well for long periods of time, and disposal of excess pesticide can be expensive.




Recordkeeping, Additional information

‘‘Recordkeeping, Additional information; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Every record form should have a space for additional comments. Use this space to jot down information for your own personal use or to record anything that was unique about the treatment. Record information about scouting or monitoring that may have been done. Write down what other pest management methods are being used and how successful the overall pest management strategy is. You can use this information to improve your pest management operations, either through better customer or worker relations or by saving money.




Recordkeeping, Necessary information

‘‘Recordkeeping, Necessary information; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The more information you record, the more useful the records will be. Devise a standard form to be sure you write down all the necessary facts each time. Keep the forms handy so you will fill them out promptly.

Record:

  • names of any handlers involved in the activity;
  • time of day and date of application;
  • location and description of treated area, including climatic conditions at the site;
  • treated surface (plant, animal, soil, water, structure, or other surface at which the pesticide was directed);
  • target pest;
  • equipment used;
  • pesticide used -- brand name, common name, formulation type, percentage of active ingredient, and EPA registration number;
  • amount of formulation used (and amount of diluent or other adjuvants added, if any);
  • total amount of pesticide applied and the rate of application (pounds per acre, ounces per 100 square feet, etc.), if applicable; and
  • size of treated area (total square feet, acres, or linear feet; room or structure size; number of animals, etc.).




Recordkeeping, Required records

‘‘Recordkeeping, Required records; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Many states, tribes, and local authorities require you to keep records of pesticide applications. Be sure you know what records you must keep and how long you must keep them. Many enforcement inspections look closely at recordkeeping because records indicate how an operation is being managed. Keep your records in a safe place where you can find them when you need them.




Registration and establishment numbers

‘‘Registration and establishment numbers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The pesticide handler needs these numbers in case of poisoning, claims of misuse, or liability claims.

An EPA registration number (for example, EPA Reg. No. 3120-280-AA) indicates that the pesticide label has been approved by EPA. Most products will contain only two sets of numbers; for example, EPA Reg. No. 3120-280. The first set of numbers, 3120, identifies the manufacturer or company. The second set, 280, identifies the product.

Additional letters and numbers are sometimes part of the EPA registration number; for example, EPA Reg. No. 3120-280-AA-0850. The letters AA might be required by a particular state to appear on that label. The 0850 is the distributor's identification number and appears on labels of distributor products.

When a pesticide is registered by a state because of a special local need, the registration is designated, for example, as EPA SLN No. KS-770009. In this case, SLN indicates "special local need" and KS means that the product is registered for use in Kansas. If the SLN registration is for only a few of the registered uses in the pesticide labeling, the SLN number may not be on the front panel of the pesticide label. Instead, it may be located in the supplementary labeling for the use to which it applies.

The establishment number (for example, EPA Est. No. 5840-AZ-I) appears on either the pesticide label or container. It identifies the facility where the product was made in case there are questions or concerns about the pesticide product, the facility that made the product can be determined.




Registration, Types of

‘‘Registration, Types of; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You are responsible for applying only registered pesticides. You may encounter three major types of registration:

  • Federal registration
  • Special local needs registration
  • Emergency exemptions from registration


Federal EPA registrations are the most common. Most pesticide uses are registered this way. Look for the official EPA registration number (which must appear on the label) to be sure you are buying an approved product.


Special local needs registrations (known as SLN or 24(c) registrations) allow states to further control how the pesticide is used in their jurisdiction, including registering additional uses or adding limitations for a federally registered pesticide. These registrations often involve adding application sites, pests, or alternate control techniques to those listed on the federally registered labeling.


Supplemental labeling must be provided for each SLN registration. Applicators must have a copy of the SLN labeling in their possession in order to apply the pesticide for that purpose. The registration number of SLN labeling will include the initials "SLN" and the standard two-letter abbreviation code for the state that issued the registration. These registrations are legal only in the state or local area specified in the labeling. Any application in another state or region is subject to civil and criminal penalties. Extension personnel, pesticide dealers, and other professionals will help inform you of SLN registrations that pertain to your area.


Emergency exemptions from registration are used when an emergency pest situation arises for which no pesticide is registered. If both federal and SLN registrations would take too long to enact, an emergency registration can be used. Known as "Section 18 exemptions", these registrations are handled by the highest governing official involved -- usually a state governor or federal agency head. This provision allows a pesticide product to be sold and used for a nonregistered purpose for a specified period of time. Strict controls and recordkeeping are required for all these emergency uses. You must understand all of the special requirements and responsibilities involved whenever you use pesticides with emergency exemptions. The agency that has granted the emergency exemption will provide application rates, safety precautions, and other vital information.




Restricted-Use Designation

‘‘Restricted-Use Designation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When a pesticide is classified as restricted, the label will state "Restricted Use Pesticide" in a box at the top of the front panel. Below this heading may be a statement describing the reason for the restricted-use classification. Usually another statement will describe the category of certified applicator who can buy and use the product. Unclassified pesticides have no designation on the product label. Examples of restricted-use statements on pesticide labels include:

"RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to acute toxicity and toxicity to birds and mammals. For retail sale and use only by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision and only for those uses covered by the certified applicator's certification."

"RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to very high acute toxicity to humans and birds. For retail sale to and use only by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision and only for those uses covered by the certified applicator's certification. Direct supervision for this product is defined as the certified applicator being physically present during application, mixing, loading, repair, and cleaning of application equipment. Commercial certified applicators must also ensure that all persons involved in these activities are informed of the precautionary statements."

"RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to oncogenicity. For retail sale and use only by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision and only for those uses covered by the certified applicator's certification. The use of this product may be hazardous to your health. This product contains [active ingredient], which has been determined to cause tumors in laboratory animals."

"RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to ground water concern. For retail sale to and use only by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision and only for those uses covered by the certified applicators' certification. Users must read and follow all precautionary statements and instructions for use in order to minimize potential of [active ingredient] to reach ground water."




Restricted-Use Pesticides

‘‘Restricted-Use Pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A pesticide, or some of its uses, is classified as restricted if it could cause harm to humans (pesticide handlers or other persons) or to the environment unless it is applied by certified applicators who have the knowledge to use these pesticides safely and effectively. The word "use" in this phrase is a general term -- it refers to such activities as:

  • application
  • mixing and loading
  • transporting, storing, or handling pesticides after the manufacturer's seal is broken
  • care and maintenance of application and handling equipment
  • disposal of pesticides and their containers




Risk analysis

‘‘Risk analysis; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Pesticide registrations and label use restrictions are both based on risk analysis and determining if the benefits of a proposed pesticide use outweigh the potential risks. A risk assessment is a detailed risk analysis that includes essentially all potential risks to all species that may be impacted by a particular pesticide use. NRCS pesticide risk analysis is a subset of a full risk assessment. NRCS focuses on pesticide environmental risk screening tools and the data used to identify sensitive pesticide/soil combinations that need mitigation to adequately protect the natural resource base.

The major components of pesticide risk analysis are:

1. Determining the potential for exposure to the pesticide

-Point source exposure

* Mixing/loading

* Accidental spills

* Container disposal

-Nonpoint source exposure

* Field leachate in water

* Field runoff in water

* Field runoff in sediment

* Field volatization in air

2. Determining the toxicological hazard posed by the pesticide

3. Characterizing risk by combining pesticide exposure and toxicity




Safety Systems

‘‘Safety Systems; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Closed mixing and loading systems, enclosed application systems, and pesticide containment systems are excellent investments for pesticide handlers who handle large quantities of pesticides or who handle pesticides that are very hazardous to humans or to the environment. In some cases these systems may be required for handling certain pesticides or when pesticides are used in or near sensitive areas.




Safety Systems, Closed Mixing and Loading Systems

‘‘Safety Systems, Closed Mixing and Loading Systems; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A closed mixing and loading system is a system designed to prevent pesticide from coming in contact with handlers or other persons during mixing and loading. The labeling of some pesticides requires you to use a closed mixing and loading system when handling the product. This requirement usually appears on products that have a high risk of causing acute effects or that may cause delayed effects. Typical statements on the labeling of such products include:

"Must be transferred and mixed using closed-system equipment. Do not use open mixing vats or tanks, or open pouring."

"Must be transferred into the spray tank through the use of a mechanical transferring device."

Some states may require use of closed mixing and loading systems for pesticides with high acute toxicity. Closed systems have both advantages and disadvantages.


Advantages:

Increased handler safety

Less need for personal protective equipment

Reduction of spills

More accurate measurement, which reduces overdosing and underdosing and may save you money


Disadvantages:

Some systems are expensive or scarce

Some systems are cumbersome

Some systems are not appropriate for many pesticides and many handling activities

There are two primary types of closed mixing and loading systems. One type uses mechanical devices to deliver the pesticide from the container to the equipment; the other type uses soluble packaging.




Safety Systems, Enclosed Application Systems

‘‘Safety Systems, Enclosed Application Systems; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You can reduce your potential pesticide exposure by using enclosed systems for some applications. An enclosed application system is an enclosure, such as a cab or cockpit, that surrounds the occupants and prevents them from contacting with pesticides outside of the enclosure.

Enclosed application systems include:

  • enclosed cab -- provides skin and eye protection,
  • enclosed cab with an air-filtering ventilation system -- protects against inhalation of dusts and mists, and protects skin and eyes,
  • enclosed cab with a vapor-removing ventilation system -- provides inhalation protection plus skin and eye protection,
  • enclosed cockpit -- provides skin, eye, and inhalation protection.

When you will be working in an enclosed application system, pesticide labeling directions and current pesticide regulations may allow you to wear less personal protective equipment than is required for ordinary application. However, you must keep the required personal protective equipment inside the cab and wear it any time you get out of the cab in the treated area. Remove it before you get back into the cab. Either store the contaminated personal protective equipment outside the cab or place it in a chemical-resistant container, such as a plastic canister or trash bag, that can be closed tightly and taken inside the cab.




Safety Systems, Mechanical systems

‘‘Safety Systems, Mechanical systems; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Mechanical systems are often a series of interconnected equipment that allows you to remove a pesticide from its original container, rinse the empty container, and transfer the pesticide and rinse solution to the application equipment without being exposed to the pesticide. The most common mechanical closed systems are used only with liquid formulations.

Closed mixing and loading systems are often custom-made, using components from several commercial sources. Because pesticide container openings, shapes, and sizes vary, no single closed system can be used with all containers. The mechanical systems now available remove the pesticide concentrate from the original container by gravity or by suction.

Gravity systems are sometimes called "punch and drain" systems. The unopened pesticide container is inserted into a chamber, which is then sealed. A punch cuts a large opening in the container, allowing all the material to drain into the mixing tank. A water nozzle attached to the punch sprays the inside of the container to rinse it thoroughly. The rinse water also drains into the mixing tank. The rinsed container is then removed for disposal.

A limitation of this system is that only full container quantities can be used. It is not possible to use part of the pesticide in a container and store the rest.

Gravity systems are available for use with both liquid and dry concentrates.

Suction systems use a pump to remove the pesticide through a probe inserted into the container. Some containers are equipped with built-in probes. The pesticide is transferred to the mixing tank by hose and pipe. When the container is empty, it and the transfer system are rinsed with water. The rinse water is added to the mixing tank.

To allow the use of only part of the pesticide in the container, the system must have a way to measure the amount of pesticide suctioned into the mixing tank and must allow the probe to remain in the container until all the pesticide is used and the container and probe can be rinsed. Some probes have a breakaway head that allows the head to stay and the probe to be withdrawn and reused.

Some suction systems do not permit the resealing of partially emptied containers. Another disadvantage of suction systems is that highly viscous pesticides (those that pour like molasses) are difficult to move by suction.




Safety Systems, Personal protective equipment requirements

‘‘Safety Systems, Personal protective equipment requirements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The personal protective equipment requirements for many pesticides may be reduced if you use a closed system.

  • You may be allowed to substitute a long-sleeved shirt, long-legged pants, shoes, and socks for the personal protective equipment listed on the pesticide labeling.
  • If the closed system is for the mixing or loading of concentrated pesticides, you may be required to wear a chemical-resistant apron and chemical-resistant gloves.

If the system operates under pressure, you may be required to wear protective eyewear.

Even if you wear less personal protective equipment while using a closed system, you should keep a set of the personal protective equipment required by the labeling at the mixing and loading sites. Then you will be prepared in case the closed system equipment breaks down or there is an accidental spill.




Safety Systems, Pesticide Containment -- Collection pads

‘‘Safety Systems, Pesticide Containment -- Collection pads; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A collection pad is suitable for mixing, loading, and equipment cleaning sites where large quantities of pesticides are handled and large equipment is cleaned. Such operations often take place outdoors or in a large, open space in a building such as a warehouse or barn.

The collection pad should be made of a waterproof material, such as sealed, smooth concrete; glazed ceramic tile; or no-wax sheet flooring. Porous surfaces, such as wood, asphalt, soil, or carpeting, are not acceptable. The pad must be concave or must have curbs or walls high enough to hold the largest amount of spill, leak, or equipment wash water likely to be created at the site. It also must be equipped with a system for removing and recovering spilled, leaked, or released material -- either an automatic sump system or a manually operated pump.

Locate the collection pad where rainwater, irrigation water, and flood water cannot flow over it. Wash the pad at the end of each day's use to prevent possible harm to the environment and to animals and unprotected people.




Safety Systems, Pesticide Containment -- Collection trays

‘‘Safety Systems, Pesticide Containment -- Collection trays; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A collection tray can be used at mixing, loading, and equipment cleaning sites where only small amounts of pesticide are handled at a time and portable equipment is used. Such tasks often occur on a counter or bench. The tray can be made of sturdy chemical-resistant rubber or plastic, such as a boot or shoe mat. The tray must have a rim around it to collect spills and leaks and should have a spout where the contents can be poured off.




Safety Systems, Pesticide Containment Systems

‘‘Safety Systems, Pesticide Containment Systems; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you often mix and load pesticides in one place, or if you often clean equipment at one location, you may find a pesticide collection pad or tray a good investment. These pads and trays are designed to catch spills, leaks, overflows, and wash water and allow them to be recovered for reuse or disposal. Larger pads may be permanently installed, but smaller pads and trays can be portable.

These systems can save you time and money. They make spill cleanup easier, and they reduce pesticide waste by allowing you to reuse the rinse water and spill cleanup water. They also help prevent the harm that spills and runoff can cause to the environment or to people.




Safety Systems, Soluble packaging

‘‘Safety Systems, Soluble packaging; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Soluble bags or containers are a much less complex type of closed-system mixing and loading. The pesticide package is designed to be placed, unopened, into the mixing tank. The container dissolves in the solvent (usually water) in the tank.

Disadvantages of soluble packaging include the risk of accidentally releasing the concentrate if the packaging is exposed to water or other solvents during shipping or storage, and the high risk of splashing as containers are added to the tank.




Sanitation

‘‘Sanitation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Sanitation practices help to prevent and suppress some pests by removing the pests or their sources of food and shelter. Urban and industrial pests can be reduced by improving cleanliness, eliminating pest harborage, and increasing the frequency of garbage pickup. Management of pests attacking domestic animals is enhanced by good manure management. Carryover of agricultural pests from one planting to the next can be reduced by removing crop residues.

Other forms of sanitation that help prevent pest spread include using pest-free seeds or transplants and decontaminating equipment, animals, and other possible carriers before allowing them to enter a pest-free area or leave an infested area. The proper design of food-handling areas can reduce access and shelter for many pests.




Sensitive Areas

‘‘Sensitive Areas; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Sensitive areas are sites or living things that are easily injured by a pesticide.

Sensitive areas outdoors include:

  • areas where ground water is near the surface or easily accessed (wells, sinkholes, porous soil, etc.);
  • areas in or near surface water;
  • areas near schools, playgrounds, hospitals, and other institutions;
  • areas near the habitats of endangered species;
  • areas near apiaries (honeybee sites), wildlife refuges, or parks; and
  • areas near ornamental gardens, food or feed crops, or other sensitive plantings.


Sensitive areas indoors include:

  • areas where people -- especially children, pregnant women, the elderly, or the sick -- live, work, or are cared for;
  • areas where food or feed is processed, prepared, stored, or served;
  • areas where domestic or confined animals live, eat, or are otherwise cared for; and
  • areas where ornamental or other sensitive plantings are grown or maintained.

Sometimes pesticides must be deliberately applied to a sensitive area to control a pest. These applications should be performed by persons well trained about how to avoid causing injury in such areas.

At other times, the sensitive area is part of a larger target site. Whenever possible, take special precautions to avoid direct application to the sensitive area. For example, leaving an untreated buffer zone around sensitive areas is often a practical way to avoid contamination.

In other instances, the sensitive area may be near a site that is used for application, mixing/loading, storage, disposal, or equipment washing. Pesticide users must take precautions to avoid accidental contamination of the sensitive area. For example, a permanent site for mixing/loading or equipment washing could be equipped with a collection pad or tray to catch and contain leaks, spills, or waste water.

Typical pesticide labeling statements that alert you to these concerns include:

"Do not use in hospital patient quarters."

"Remove all animals from building prior to treatment and keep animals out until spray has dried."

"Applications prohibited in areas where food is held, processed, prepared or served."

"Do not use around home gardens, schools, recreational parks, or playgrounds."

"In living areas, make applications in such a manner as to avoid deposits on exposed surfaces or introducing the material into the air."

"Do not use in or around residences."




Sensitivity and vulnerability of ground and surface water

‘‘Sensitivity and vulnerability of ground and surface water; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Sensitivity refers to intrinsic physical and biological characteristics of a particular site that make it more or less susceptible to potential ground or surface water contamination. Sensitivity parameters include climate, soil characteristics (table 4 -3),and distance to waterbodies.


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Vulnerability refers to extrinsic management factors that could make a sensitive site more or less susceptible to ground or surface water contamination. Vulnerability parameters include cropping practices, tillage practices, pest management practices (including pesticide use practices), and irrigation practices,

Sensitive sites can be carefully managed to reduce ground and surface water vulnerability.



Site Size Calculation

‘‘Site Size Calculation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To determine how much pesticide is needed for a job, you must measure or calculate the size of the site to be treated. The following examples will help you to calculate the area of both regularly and irregularly shaped surfaces and the volume of some enclosed spaces.


Site Size Calculation -- Circles

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Circles; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The area of a circle is the radius (one-half the diameter) times the radius times 3.14.

Area = Radius X Radius X 3.14

Example:

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R = 35 feet

Area = 35 ft. X 35 ft. X 3.14

Area = 3,846.5 sq. ft.


Site Size Calculation -- Irregularly Shaped Sites (Example 1)

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Irregularly Shaped Sites (Example 1); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Irregularly shaped sites often can be reduced to a combination of rectangles, circles, and triangles. Calculate the area of each and add them together to obtain the total area.

W = 25 feet; H = 25 feet

L1 = 42 feet; W1 = 30 feet

L2 = 31 feet; W2 = 33 feet

Area = [(W X H) / 2] + [L1 X W1] + [L2 X W2]

Example:

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Area = [(25 feet X 25 feet) / 2] + [30 feet X 42 feet] + [31 feet X 33 feet]

Area = 312.5 sq. feet + 1,260 sq. feet + 1,023 sq. feet

Total area = 2,595 square feet


Site Size Calculation -- Irregularly Shaped Sites (Example 2)

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Irregularly Shaped Sites (Example 2); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Another way is to establish a line down the middle of the site for the length, and then measure from side to side at several points along this line. Sites with very irregular shapes require more side-to-side measurements. The average of the side measurements can be used as the width. The area is then calculated as a rectangle.

Example:

<I file="graphics\size5.bmp"></H>

L = 45 feet

a = 22 feet

b = 21 feet

c = 15 feet

d = 17 feet

e = 22 feet

                     (a + b + c + d + e)

Area = L X -----------------------------------

           number of side to side measurements


                  22 feet + 21 feet + 15 feet + 17 feet + 22 feet

Area = 45 feet X -----------------------------------------------

                                      5

Area = 873 square feet



Site Size Calculation -- Irregularly Shaped Sites (Example 3)

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Irregularly Shaped Sites (Example 3); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

A third method is to convert the site into a circle. From a center point, measure distance to the edge of the area in 10 or more increments. Average these measurements to find the average radius. Then calculate the area, using the formula for a circle.

Example:

<I file="graphics\size6.bmp"></H>

                a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h + i + j

Average Radius = -------------------------------------

                   number of increments measured


                10 ft + 12 ft + 16 ft + 15 ft + 11 ft + 12 ft + 10 ft + 9 ft + 13 ft + 16 ft

Average Radius = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                         10 increments measured

Average Radius = 12.4 feet

Area = 3.14 X radius X radius

Area = 3.14 X 12.4 feet X 12.4 feet

Area = 482.8 square feet


Site Size Calculation -- Rectangles

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Rectangles; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the length (L) by the width (W).

Area = Length X Width

Example:

<I file="graphics\size1.bmp"></H>

L = 125 feet W = 40 feet

Area = 125 ft. X 40 ft.

Area = 5,000 sq. ft.


Site Size Calculation -- Triangles

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Triangles; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To find the area of a triangle, multiply the width at the base (W) by the height (H), and divide by two.

Area = (W X H) / 2

Example:

<I file="graphics\size3.bmp"></H>

W = 55 ft., H = 53 ft.

Area = (55 ft. X 53 ft.) / 2

Area = 1,457.5 square feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume of Enclosed Spaces

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume of Enclosed Spaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To treat an enclosed space, you must determine its volume. To treat bodies of water (other than surface areas), you must determine the volume of the water.


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Cubes or boxes

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Cubes or boxes; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The volume of a cube or box is found by multiplying the length (L) by the width (W) by the height (H).

Volume = Length X Width X Height

Example:

<I file="graphics\size7.bmp"></H>

L = 125 feet

W = 40 feet

H = 12 feet

Volume = 125 feet X 40 feet X 12 feet

Volume = 60,000 cubic feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Cylinders

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Cylinders; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The volume of a cylindrical structure is found by multiplying the height by the area of the circle at the base. The area of the circle is the radius (1/2 the diameter) times the radius times 3.14.

Volume = Height X Radius X Radius X 3.14

Example:

<I file="graphics\size8.bmp"></H>

Height = 125 feet

Radius = 35 feet

Volume = 125 feet X 35 feet X 35 feet X 3.14

Volume = 480,812 cubic feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Flat-topped tent-shaped spaces

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Flat-topped tent-shaped spaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The volume of a flat-topped tent-shaped structure is found by multiplying the length (L) by the height (H) by the average of the width at the top (W1) and the width at the base (W2).

Volume = [L X H X (W1 + W2)] / 2

Example:

<I file="graphics\size10.bmp"></H>

L = 125 feet

H = 12 feet

W1 = 30 feet

W2 = 40 feet

Volume = [125 feet X 12 feet X (30 feet + 40 feet)] / 2

Volume = 52,500 cubic feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style (Half-circle ends)

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style (Half-circle ends); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

To figure the area of the half-circle- shaped end, treat it as a whole circle, using the height from the ground to the highest point as the radius (H1). After you have figured the area of the whole circle (H1 x H1 x 3.14), divide by 2 to get the area of the half circle. Then multiply by the length to determine the volume.

[(H1 X H1 X 3.14) /2] X L = Volume of half-circle quonset structure

Example:

<I file="graphics\size11.bmp"></H>

H1 = 12 feet

L = 125 feet

[(12 ft. X 12 ft. X 3.14) / 2] X 125 ft. = 28,260 cubic feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style (Half-circle-over-rectangle ends)

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style (Half-circle-over-rectangle ends); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Figure the area of the half circle as above, and figure the area of the rectangle (W X H2). Add these two areas together and multiply by the length of the structure to get the volume.

[(H1 X H1 X 3.14) / 2] + [H2 X W] X L = Volume

Example:

<I file="graphics\size12.bmp"></H>

H1 = 8 feet

H2 = 8 feet

W = 16 feet

L = 40 feet

[(8 ft. X 8 ft. X 3.14) / 2] + [8 feet X 16 feet] X 40 ft. = 9,139.2 cubic feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style (Triangle-over-rectangle ends)

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style (Triangle-over-rectangle ends); Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Figure the area of the rectangle [(W X H1) / 2], and figure the area of the triangle (W X H2). Add these two areas together and multiply by the length of the structure to find the volume.

[(W X H1) / 2] + [W X H2] X L = Volume

Example:

<I file="graphics\size13.bmp"></H>

H1 = 8 feet

H2 = 8 feet

W = 20 feet

L = 40 feet

[(20 ft. X 8 ft.) / 2] + [20 ft. X 8 ft.] X 40 ft. = 9,600 cubic feet


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style structures

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Quonset-style structures; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The volume of quonset-style structures is found by figuring the area of the end and multiplying that by the length.


Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Tent-shaped spaces

‘‘Site Size Calculation -- Volume, Tent-shaped spaces; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The volume of a tent-shaped structure is found by multiplying the length (L) by the width (W) by the height (H) and dividing by 2.

Volume = (L X W X H) / 2

Example:

<I file="graphics\size9.bmp"></H>

L = 125 feet

W = 40 feet

H = 12 feet

Volume = (125 feet X 40 feet X 12 cubic feet) / 2

Volume = 30,000 cubic feet


Sources of Contamination

‘‘Sources of Contamination; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Environmental contamination is caused by either point-source or non-point-source pollution. Point-source pollution comes from a specific, identifiable place (point). A pesticide spill that moves into a storm sewer is an example of point-source pollution. Non-point-source pollution comes from a wide area. The movement of pesticides into streams after broadcast applications is an example of non-point-source pollution.

Non-point-source pollution from pesticide applications has commonly been blamed for pesticide contamination outdoors, but more and more studies are revealing that, in fact, much environmental contamination does not result from non-point-source pollution. Contamination also results from point sources, such as:

  • wash water and spills produced at equipment cleanup sites,
  • improper disposal of containers, water from rinsing containers, and excess pesticides,
  • pesticide storage sites where leaks and spills are not correctly cleaned up, and
  • spills that occur while mixing concentrates or loading pesticides into application equipment.

These kinds of tasks are involved with nearly every pesticide use, whether the pesticide is applied outdoors or in or around an enclosed structure.

As a pesticide handler, especially if you use and supervise the use of restricted-use pesticides, you must become aware of the potential for environmental contamination during every phase of your pesticide operation. Many pesticide uses are restricted because of environmental concerns. Whenever you release a pesticide into the environment -- whether intentionally or accidentally -- consider:

  • Whether there are sensitive areas in the environment at the pesticide use site that might be harmed by contact with the pesticide
  • Whether there are sensitive offsite areas near the use site that might be harmed by contact with the pesticide
  • Whether there are conditions in the environment at the pesticide use site that might cause the pesticide to move offsite
  • Whether you need to change any factors in your application or in the pesticide use site to reduce the risk of environmental contamination




Special Environmental Concerns -- Protecting Ground Water and Endangered Species

‘‘Special Environmental Concerns -- Protecting Ground Water and Endangered Species; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Concerns about wildlife and the environment are becoming more important in decisions about which pesticides will be registered and what they may be used for. Two environmental concerns are receiving particular attention:

  • protection of ground water, and
  • protection of endangered species

Federal and state efforts to protect ground water and endangered species are resulting in new instructions and limitations for pesticide handlers. Whether you apply pesticides indoors or outdoors, in an urban area or in a rural area, you must become aware of the importance of protecting these two vital national resources. Pesticides that are incorrectly or accidentally released into the environment -- either during application or during other handling activities, such as mixing, loading, equipment cleaning, storage, transportation, or disposal -- pose a threat to ground water and endangered species.

Whether you must take special action to protect ground water and endangered species depends mainly on the location of your use site. Ground water contamination is of greatest concern in release sites where ground water is close to the surface or where the soil type or the geology allows contaminants to reach ground water easily. Protection of endangered species usually is required only in locations where they currently live or are being reintroduced. Read the pesticide labeling carefully to determine whether your pesticide use is subject to any special ground water or endangered species limitations.

The EPA may establish specific limitations or instructions for pesticide users in locations where ground water or endangered species are most at risk. These limitations and instructions are often too long to be included in pesticide labeling. The labeling may tell you to consult another source for details about the instructions and limitations for your situation. Your legal responsibility for following instructions that are distributed separately is the same as it is for instructions that appear in full on the pesticide labeling.




Statement of practical treatment (first aid)

‘‘Statement of practical treatment (first aid); Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Most pesticide products are required to include instructions on how to respond to an emergency exposure involving that product. The instructions usually include first aid measures and may include instructions to seek medical help. If the Statement of Practical Treatment is not located on the front panel, a statement on the front panel must refer the user to the section of the label or labeling where the Statement of Practical Treatment may be found.




Storage

‘‘Storage; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Many pesticide handlers use existing buildings or areas within existing buildings for pesticide storage. However, if large amounts of pesticides will be stored, build a special storage building for pesticides.




Storage Site

‘‘Storage Site; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A correctly designed and maintained pesticide storage site is essential. A suitable storage site:

protects people and animals from accidental exposure,

protects the environment from accidental contamination,

  • prevents damage to pesticides from temperature extremes and excess moisture,
  • protects the pesticides from theft, vandalism, and unauthorized use, and
  • reduces the likelihood of liability.




Storage, Disposal

‘‘Storage, Disposal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticide users are responsible for correctly dealing with empty pesticide containers, excess usable pesticides, and waste materials that contain pesticides or their residues. There is growing concern about the serious harm to humans and the environment that incorrect disposal of pesticide wastes can cause. For information on disposal options in your area, contact your state or tribal pesticide authority.




Storage, Disposal -- Burnable containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Burnable containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The labeling of some paper, cardboard, and plastic containers may list "burning, if allowed by state and local authorities" as a disposal option for pesticide containers. However, open burning of pesticide containers and waste pesticides is questionable and may violate federal regulations that could take precedence over the instructions on the pesticide labeling. Because of possible air pollution hazards and the risks of liability, your best option is to use another disposal method for these containers.




Storage, Disposal -- Containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Try to avoid the need to dispose of pesticide containers as wastes. For example, you may be able to:

  • use containers that are designed to be refilled by the pesticide dealer or the chemical company,
  • arrange to have the empty containers recycled or reconditioned, or
  • use soluble packaging.

If you have containers that you must dispose of, be sure to rinse them, if possible. Rinsed containers are easier to dispose of than unrinsed containers.




Storage, Disposal -- Excess Pesticides

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Excess Pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The best solution to the problem of what to do with excess pesticides is to avoid having them:

  • Buy only the amount needed for a year or a season.
  • Calculate carefully how much diluted pesticide is needed for a job and mix only that amount.
  • Use all the mixed pesticide in accordance with labeling instructions.

If you have excess usable pesticides, try to find a way to use them as directed on the label. The best option is to apply the pesticide on a site listed in the use directions on the pesticide labeling, under the following conditions:

The total amount of pesticide active ingredient applied to the site, including all previous applications, must not exceed the rate and frequency allowed on the labeling.

You must comply with other application instructions specified on the labeling.

If you have pesticide products in their original containers that you cannot use, you may be able to find another pesticide handler who can. Or you may be able to return them to a dealer, formulator, or manufacturer.

Most container rinsates should not become excess pesticides because they can be added into the tank during mixing. You also may be able to add some rinsates from equipment cleaning, spill cleanup, and other activities to a tank mixture that contains the same pesticide, as long as doing so will not violate labeling instructions. However, some rinsates will contain dirt, cleaning agents, or other substances that will make them unusable.




Storage, Disposal -- Labeling statements about container disposal

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Labeling statements about container disposal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Typical pesticide labeling instructions about disposal of pesticide containers include:

"Do not reuse empty containers."

"Offer for recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or incinerate."

"Dispose of bag in a sanitary landfill or by incineration."




Storage, Disposal -- Labeling statements about waste disposal

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Labeling statements about waste disposal; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Typical pesticide labeling instructions about disposal of pesticide wastes include:

"Do not contaminate water by disposal of wastes."

"Pesticide wastes are toxic. Improper disposal of excess pesticide is a violation of Federal law. If these wastes cannot be disposed of by use according to label instructions, contact your State Pesticide or Environmental Control Agency, or the Hazardous Waste representative at the nearest EPA Regional Office for guidance."




Storage, Disposal -- Pesticide Wastes

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Pesticide Wastes; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Excess pesticides and rinsates that cannot be used must be disposed of as wastes. Other pesticide wastes include such things as contaminated spill cleanup material and personal protective equipment items that cannot be cleaned and reused. Whenever possible, avoid creating pesticide wastes that require disposal.

Sometimes pesticide wastes can be disposed of in a landfill operating under EPA, state, tribal, or local permit for hazardous wastes. Most sanitary landfills are not suitable. Some regions have pesticide incinerators for disposing of pesticide wastes. Never burn, bury, or dump excess pesticides, and never dispose of them in a way that will contaminate public or private ground water or surface water or sewage treatment facilities.

Pesticide wastes that cannot be disposed of right away should be marked to indicate the contents and then stored safely and correctly until disposal is possible.




Storage, Disposal -- Recyclable and reconditionable containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Recyclable and reconditionable containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You may be able to take your rinsed metal or plastic containers to a facility that can recycle them. Some 55- and 30-gallon drums can be returned to the dealer, manufacturer, or formulator to be reconditioned and reused.




Storage, Disposal -- Refillable containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Refillable containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some types of containers are designed to be refilled with pesticide repeatedly during their lifetime, which may be many years. They usually are not designed to be triple rinsed or pressure rinsed by the pesticide user. When necessary, they are cleaned by the pesticide dealer or chemical company before refilling. Common types of refillable containers include minibulks and small-volume returnables.




Storage, Disposal -- Soluble containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Soluble containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Soluble containers are designed to be placed, unopened, into the mixing tank. The container dissolves in the solvent (usually water) in the tank. Only the over-packaging remains, and it may be disposed of as nonhazardous waste in a sanitary landfill.




Storage, Disposal -- Triple-rinsed or pressure-rinsed containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Triple-rinsed or pressure-rinsed containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Containers that have been correctly triple rinsed or pressure rinsed usually may be disposed of as regular trash in a sanitary landfill, unless prohibited by the pesticide labeling or by State, tribal, or local authorities. Mark the containers to show that they have been rinsed.




Storage, Disposal -- Unrinsed containers

‘‘Storage, Disposal -- Unrinsed containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

To dispose of unrinsed containers, take them to an incinerator or landfill operating under EPA, state, or tribal permit for hazardous waste disposal. If this is not possible, check with your state, tribal, or local authorities to find out what to do. Otherwise, you may need to store the containers until you have a way to dispose of them.




Storage, Maintainance -- Consider shelf life

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Consider shelf life; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Mark each pesticide container with the date of purchase before it is stored. Use older materials first. If the product has a shelf life listed in the labeling, the purchase date will indicate whether it is still usable. Excessive clumping, poor suspension, layering, or abnormal coloration may indicate that the pesticide has broken down. However, sometimes pesticide deterioration from age or poor storage conditions becomes obvious only after application. Poor pest control or damage to the treated surface can occur. If you have doubts about the shelf life of a pesticide, call the dealer or manufacturer for advice.




Storage, Maintainance -- Isolate waste products

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Isolate waste products; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If you have pesticides and pesticide containers that are being held for disposal, store them in a special section of the storage site. Accidental use of pesticides meant for disposal can be costly. Clearly mark containers that have been triple rinsed or cleaned by an equivalent method because they are more easily disposed of than unrinsed containers.




Storage, Maintainance -- Keep containers closed

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Keep containers closed; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Keep pesticide containers securely closed whenever they are being stored. Tightly closed containers help protect against:

  • a spill,
  • cross-contamination with other stored products,
  • evaporation of liquid pesticides or the solvent,
  • clumping or caking of dry pesticides in humid conditions, and
  • dust, dirt, and other contaminants getting into the pesticide, causing it to be unusable.




Storage, Maintainance -- Keep labels legible

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Keep labels legible; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Store pesticide containers with the label in plain sight. Costly errors can result if the wrong pesticide is chosen by mistake. Labels should always be legible. They may be damaged or destroyed by exposure to moisture, dripping pesticide, diluents, or dirt. You can use transparent tape or a coating of lacquer or polyurethane to protect the label. If the label is destroyed or damaged, request a replacement from the pesticide dealer or the pesticide formulator immediately.




Storage, Maintainance -- Know your inventory

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Know your inventory; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Keep an up-to-date inventory of stored pesticides. Each time a pesticide is added to or removed from the storage site, update the inventory. The list will help you track your stock and will be essential in a fire or flood emergency. The inventory list also will aid in insurance settlements and in estimating future pesticide needs.

Do not store unnecessarily large quantities of pesticides for a long time. Buy only as much as you will need for a year. Pests, pesticides, or pesticide registrations may change by the next year and make the pesticides useless. Some pesticides have a relatively short shelf life and cannot be carried over from year to year.




Storage, Maintainance -- Labeling Statements About Storage

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Labeling Statements About Storage; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Typical pesticide labeling instructions about storage include:

"Store at temperatures above 32oF."

"Do not contaminate feed, foodstuffs, or drinking water during storage."

"Store in original container only."

"In outside storage areas, store drums on sides to avoid accumulation of rain water in top or bottom of recessed areas."

"Do not store near ignition sources such as electrical sparks, flames, or heated surfaces."

"Flammable. Do not use, pour, spill, or store near heat or open flame. Do not cut or weld container."




Storage, Maintainance -- Prevent contamination

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Prevent contamination; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Store only pesticides, pesticide containers, pesticide equipment, and a spill cleanup kit at the storage site. Do not keep food, drinks, tobacco, feed, medical or veterinary supplies or medication, seeds, clothing, or personal protective equipment (other than personal protective equipment necessary for emergency response) at the site. These could be contaminated by vapors, dusts, or spills and cause accidental exposure to people or animals.




Storage, Maintainance -- Prevent Pesticide Fires

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Prevent Pesticide Fires; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Some pesticides are highly flammable; others do not catch fire easily. The labeling of pesticides that require extra precautions often will contain a warning statement in either the Physical/Chemical Hazards section or the Storage and Disposal section. Pesticides that contain oils or petroleum-based solvents are most likely to contain these warning statements. Some dry products also present fire and explosion hazards.

Store combustible pesticides away from open flames and other heat sources, such as steam lines, heating systems, kerosene heaters or other space heaters, gas-powered equipment, or incinerators. Do not store glass containers in sunlight where they can focus the heat rays and possibly explode or ignite. Install fire detection systems in large storage sites, and equip each storage site with a working fire extinguisher approved for all types of fires, including chemical fires.

If you store highly toxic pesticides or large amounts of any pesticide, inform your local fire department, hospital, public health officials, and police of the location of your pesticide storage building before a fire emergency occurs. Tell fire department officials what types of pesticides are regularly stored at the site, give them a floor plan, and work with them to develop an emergency response plan.




Storage, Maintainance -- Store volatile products separately

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Store volatile products separately; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Volatile pesticides, such as some types of 2,4-D, should be stored apart from other types of pesticides and other chemicals. A separate room is ideal. Vapors from opened containers of these pesticides can move into other nearby pesticides and chemicals and make them useless. The labeling of volatile herbicides usually will direct you to store them separately from seeds, fertilizers, and other types of pesticides.




Storage, Maintainance -- Use original containers

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Use original containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Store pesticides in their original containers. Never put pesticides in containers that might cause children and other people to mistake them for food or drink. You are legally responsible if someone or something is injured by pesticides you have placed in unlabeled or unsuitable containers.




Storage, Maintainance -- Watch for damage

‘‘Storage, Maintainance -- Watch for damage; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Inspect containers regularly for tears, splits, breaks, leaks, rust, or corrosion. When a container is damaged, put on appropriate personal protective equipment and take immediate action. If the damaged container is an aerosol can or fumigant tank that contains pesticides under pressure, use special care to avoid accidentally releasing the pesticide into the air. When a container is damaged:

  • Use the pesticide immediately at a site and rate allowed by the label, or
  • Transfer the pesticide into another pesticide container that originally held the same pesticide and has the same label still intact, or
  • Transfer the contents to a sturdy container that can be tightly closed. If possible, remove the label from the damaged container and use it on the new container. Otherwise, temporarily mark the new container with the name and EPA registration number of the pesticide, and get a copy of the label from the pesticide dealer or formulator (whose telephone number is usually on the label) as soon as possible, or
  • Place the entire damaged container and its contents into a suitable larger container. Consider this option carefully, however. Many times the label on the leaking container becomes illegible. The pesticide is useless and becomes a disposal problem unless you know the name and registration number and can get a copy of the label.




Storage, Site -- Control temperature

‘‘Storage, Site -- Control temperature; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The storage site should be indoors, whenever possible. Choose a cool, well-ventilated room or building that is insulated or temperature-controlled to prevent freezing or overheating. The pesticide labeling may tell you at what temperature the product should be stored. Freezing temperatures can cause glass, metal, and plastic containers to break. Excessive heat can cause plastic containers to melt, some glass containers to explode, and some pesticides to volatilize and drift away from the storage site. Temperature extremes can destroy the potency of some pesticides.




Storage, Site -- Prevent runoff

‘‘Storage, Site -- Prevent runoff; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Inspect the storage site to determine the likely path of pesticides in case of spills, leaks, drainage of equipment wash water, and heavy pesticide runoff from firefighting or floods. Pesticide movement away from the storage site could contaminate sensitive areas, including surface water or ground water. If your storage site contains large amounts of pesticides, you may need to use a collection pad11 to contain pesticide runoff.




Storage, Site -- Prevent water damage

‘‘Storage, Site -- Prevent water damage; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Choose a storage site where water damage is unlikely to occur. Water from burst pipes, spills, overflows, excess rain or irrigation, or flooding streams can damage pesticide containers and pesticides. Water or excess moisture can cause:

  • metal containers to rust,
  • paper and cardboard containers to split or crumble,
  • pesticide labeling to peel, smear, run, or otherwise become unreadable,
  • dry pesticides to clump, degrade, or dissolve,
  • slow-release products to release their pesticide, and
  • pesticides to move from the storage site into other areas.

If the storage site is not protected from the weather or if it tends to be damp, consider placing metal, cardboard, and paper containers in sturdy plastic bags or cans for protection. Large metal containers, which may rust when damp, often can be placed on pallets within the storage site.




Storage, Site -- Provide adequate lighting

‘‘Storage, Site -- Provide adequate lighting; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The storage site should be well lighted. Pesticide handlers using the facility must be able to see well enough to:

  • read pesticide container labeling,
  • notice whether containers are leaking, corroding, or otherwise disintegrating, and
  • clean up spills or leaks completely.




Storage, Site -- Provide clean water

‘‘Storage, Site -- Provide clean water; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Each storage site must have an immediate supply of clean water. Potable running water is ideal. If running water is not practical, use a large, sealable container with clean water. Change the water at least weekly to ensure that it remains safe for use on skin and eyes. Keep an eyewash dispenser immediately available for emergencies.




Storage, Site -- Security

‘‘Storage, Site -- Security; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Keeping out unauthorized people is an important function of the storage site. Whether the storage site is as small as a cabinet or closet or as large as an entire room or building, keep it securely locked. Post signs on doors and windows to alert people that pesticides are stored there. Post "No smoking" warnings.




Storage, Site -- Use nonporous materials

‘‘Storage, Site -- Use nonporous materials; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The floor of the storage site should be made of sealed cement, glazed ceramic tile, no-wax sheet flooring, or another easily cleaned material. Carpeting, wood, soil, and other absorbent floors are difficult or impossible to decontaminate in case of a leak or spill. For ease of cleanup, shelving and pallets should be made of nonabsorbent materials such as plastic or metal. If wood or fiberboard materials are used, they should be coated or covered with plastic, polyurethane or epoxy paint.




Storage, Spill Management

‘‘Storage, Spill Management; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

A spill is any accidental release of a pesticide. As careful as people try to be, pesticide spills can and do occur. The spill may be minor, involving only a dribble from a container, or it may be major, involving large amounts of pesticide or pesticide-containing materials such as wash water, soil, and absorbents.

You must know how to respond correctly when a spill occurs. Stopping large leaks or spills is often not simple. If you cannot manage a spill by yourself, get help. Even a spill that appears to be minor can endanger you, other people, and the environment if not handled correctly. Never leave a spill unattended. When in doubt, get assistance.

You can get help from Chemtrec (Chemical Transportation Emergency Center) by calling 1-800-424-9300. This number is for emergencies only.

The faster you can contain, absorb, and dispose of a spill, the less chance there is that it will cause harm. Clean up most spills immediately. Even minor dribbles or spills should be cleaned up before the end of the work day to keep unprotected persons or animals from being exposed.

When a spill emergency occurs, remember the "three C's:

Control, Contain, and Clean up.




Storage, Spill -- Absorb liquids

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Absorb liquids; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Liquid pesticide spills can be further contained by covering the entire spill site with absorbent materials, such as spill pillows, fine sand, vermiculite, sawdust, clay, kitty litter, shredded newspaper, or absorbent pads.




Storage, Spill -- Clean Up

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Clean Up; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

After you have contained the spill, pick up the spilled material and decontaminate the spill site and any contaminated items or equipment.

For spilled liquid pesticides, sweep up the absorbent material containing the pesticide and place it into a heavy-duty plastic drum or bag. Keep adding the absorbent material until the spilled liquid is soaked up and removed.

Spills of dry pesticides should be swept up for reuse if possible. Avoid contaminating the spilled materials with soil or other debris, so it can be used in the usual application equipment and will not clog the nozzles or hopper openings. However, if the dry spill has become wet or full of debris, it must be swept up and placed in a heavy-duty plastic drum or bag for disposal.




Storage, Spill -- Contain the Spill

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Contain the Spill; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

As soon as the source of the leak is under control, move quickly to keep the spill in as small an area as possible. Do everything you can to keep it from spreading or getting worse. For small spills, use containment snakes to surround the spill and keep it confined. For larger spills, use a shovel, a rake, or other tool or equipment to make a dike of soil, sod, or absorbent material.




Storage, Spill -- Cover dry materials

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Cover dry materials; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Prevent dry, dusty pesticide spills, such as dusts, powders, or granules, from becoming airborne by covering them with a sweeping compound or a plastic covering or by very lightly misting the material with water. Do not mist too much, because water may release the pesticidal action or may cause the pesticide to form clumps and be unusable.

Warning: Pesticides that are oxidizers, such as calcium hypochlorite (a common sanitizer) and some herbicides and desiccants that contain chlorites, should not be contained with sawdust, shredded paper, or sweeping compounds. These absorbent compounds combine with the oxidizer to create a fire hazard and could burst into flame.




Storage, Spill -- Decontaminate equipment

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Decontaminate equipment; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Clean any vehicles, equipment, and personal protective equipment that were contaminated by the spill or during the containment and cleanup process. Use a strong mixture of chlorine bleach, dishwasher detergent, and water to clean the vehicles and equipment. Wash personal protective equipment thoroughly, following manufacturers' instructions and the guidelines in the personal protective equipment unit of this manual. Remember particularly that porous materials, such as brooms, leather shoes, and clothing, cannot be cleaned effectively if they are thoroughly saturated with pesticide. They should be discarded.




Storage, Spill -- Decontaminate the spill site

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Decontaminate the spill site; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Once you have collected as much of the spilled material as possible, decontaminate the spill site as well as you can. Do not hose down the site with water, unless the spill is on a containment tray or pad.

If the surface on which the pesticide has spilled is nonporous, such as sealed concrete, glazed ceramic tile, or no-wax sheet flooring, use water (or the chemical listed on the label to dilute the pesticide) and a strong detergent to remove the residues of the spill from the surface. Do not allow any of the wash solution to run off the site being cleaned. Place fresh absorbent material over the wash solution until it is all soaked up. Then sweep up the absorbent material and place it in a plastic drum or bag for disposal as an excess pesticide.

If the surface upon which the pesticide has spilled is porous, such as soil, unsealed wood, or carpet, you may have to remove the contaminated surface and dispose of it as an excess pesticide. Depending on the size of the spill and the toxicity of the pesticide, however, sometimes the site can be successfully neutralized.




Storage, Spill -- Decontaminate yourself

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Decontaminate yourself; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you are finished with the spill and equipment cleanup, wash yourself thoroughly with detergent and water. Wash any part of your skin that might have been exposed, and always wash your face, neck, hands, and forearms.




Storage, Spill -- Labeling Statements about Spill Management

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Labeling Statements about Spill Management; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Typical pesticide labeling instructions about spill procedures include:

"If container is broken or contents have spilled, clean up immediately. Before cleaning up, put on full-length trousers, long-sleeved shirt, protective gloves, and goggles or face shield. Soak up spill with absorbent media such as sand, earth, or other suitable material and dispose of waste at an approved waste disposal facility."

"If the container is leaking or material is spilled, carefully sweep material into a pile. Refer to Precautionary Statements on label for hazards associated with the handling of this material. Do not walk through spilled material. Keep unauthorized people away."

"Contact the [chemical company] emergency response team for decontamination procedures or any other emergency assistance at [telephone number]."




Storage, Spill -- Neutralize the spill site

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Neutralize the spill site; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The labeling of a few pesticides will instruct you to neutralize a spill of that pesticide. Sometimes an authority, such as the pesticide manufacturer or Chemtrec, also will instruct you to neutralize the spill site. Follow instructions carefully.

Neutralizing a spill often consists of mixing full-strength bleach with hydrated lime and working this mixture into the spill site with a coarse broom. Fresh absorbent material is then spread over the spill site to soak up the neutralizing liquid. This material is swept up and placed in a plastic drum or bag for disposal. You may be instructed to repeat the process several times to make sure that the site is thoroughly neutralized.

Soil is sometimes neutralized by removing and disposing of the top 2 to 3 inches and then neutralizing the remaining soil. You may be instructed to mix activated charcoal into the soil or to cover the spill site with 2 or more inches of lime and cover the lime with fresh topsoil.

Sometimes you may be instructed to cover minor spills with activated charcoal. The activated charcoal can adsorb or tie up enough pesticide to avoid adverse effects to plants and animals that contact the soil in the future. However, activated charcoal is not effective for large spills.




Storage, Spill -- Protect others

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Protect others; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Isolate the spill site by keeping children, other unprotected people, and animals well back. Rope off the site if necessary. If you suspect the spill contains a highly volatile or explosive pesticide, you may need to keep people back even farther. Warn people to keep out of reach of any drift or fumes. Do not use road flares or allow anyone to smoke if you suspect the leaking material is flammable.




Storage, Spill -- Protect water sources

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Protect water sources; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Keep the spill out of any body of water or any pathway that will lead to water, such as a ditch, floor drain, well, or sinkhole. If the spilled pesticide is flowing toward such an area, block it or redirect it.




Storage, Spill -- Protect yourself

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Protect yourself; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Put on appropriate personal protective equipment before contacting the spill or breathing its fumes. If you do not know how toxic the pesticide is or what type of personal protective equipment to wear, don't take a chance! Wear barrier-laminate apron, footwear, and gloves; eye protection; and a respirator.




Storage, Spill -- Spill Assistance

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Spill Assistance; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Chemtrec, the Chemical Transportation Emergency Center, is a public service of the Chemical Manufacturing Association. Located in Washington, DC, Chemtrec is staffed 24 hours a day by trained personnel who can advise you how to manage chemical emergencies.

When you request help from Chemtrec or any other source, have the product label on hand. Many pesticide labels list an emergency telephone number that gives you direct access to the manufacturer and people who know how to manage emergencies for that product.

If the spill occurs on a highway, call the highway patrol or highway department right away. If the spill occurs on a county road or city street, call the county sheriff, city police, or fire department. These authorities are trained for such emergencies and will be able to assist you in your cleanup. Many local and state authorities require that you notify them of a pesticide spill.

If you suspect that a large spill is flammable, call the fire department for assistance. However, do not let them hose down the spill unless an authority directs them to do so.

If the spill may expose the public to pesticides or pesticide residues, contact public health officials. If anyone is poisoned by contacting the spill or if you suspect that an exposure may lead to poisoning call the hospital emergency room and provide them with the brand name, active ingredients, and any other labeling information about human health hazards, signs and symptoms of poisoning, and antidotes.




Storage, Spill -- Spill Followup

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Spill Followup; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

For all large spills, and any spills that take place off your property, consider keeping records of your containment and cleanup activities and your conversations with authorities and the public about the spill. Photographs help to document any damage as well as the cleanup process. Report the spill to the appropriate agency, when necessary.




Storage, Spill -- Spill Kit

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Spill Kit; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Keep a spill cleanup kit immediately available whenever you handle pesticides or their containers. If a spill occurs, you will not have the time or the opportunity to find all of the items.

The kit should consist of:

  • telephone numbers for emergency assistance,
  • sturdy gloves, footwear, and apron that are chemical-resistant to most pesticides, such as barrier-laminate gear,
  • protective eyewear,
  • an appropriate respirator, if any of the pesticides require the use of one during handling activities or for spill cleanup,
  • containment "snakes" to confine the leak or spill to a small area,
  • absorbent materials, such as spill pillows, absorbent clay, sawdust, pet litter, activated charcoal, vermiculite, or paper to soak up liquid spills,
  • sweeping compound to keep dry spills from drifting or wafting during cleanup,
  • a shovel, broom, and dustpan (foldable brooms and shovels are handy, because they can be carried easily),
  • heavy-duty detergent,
  • a fire extinguisher rated for all types of fires,
  • any other spill cleanup items specified on the labeling of any products you use regularly, and
  • a sturdy plastic container that will hold the quantity of pesticide from the largest pesticide container being handled and that can be tightly closed.

All of these items can be stored in the plastic container and kept clean and in working order until a spill occurs.




Storage, Spill -- Stay at the site

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Stay at the site; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Do not leave the spill site until another knowledgeable and correctly protected person arrives. Someone should be at the spill site at all times until the spill is cleaned up.




Storage, Spill -- Stop the source

‘‘Storage, Spill -- Stop the source; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

If a small container is leaking, place it into a larger chemical-resistant container, such as a plastic drum or bag. If a spray tank is overflowing, stop the inflow and try to cap off the tank. If a tank, hopper, or container has burst or has tipped over and is too heavy to be righted, you will not be able to stop the source.




Threshold Levels

‘‘Threshold Levels; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Thresholds are the levels of pest populations at which you should take pest control action if you want to prevent the pests in an area from causing unacceptable injury or harm. Thresholds may be based on esthetic, health, or economic considerations. These levels, which are known as "action thresholds," have been determined for many pests.

A threshold often is set at the level where the economic losses caused by pest damage, if the pest population continued to grow, would be greater than the cost of controlling the pests. These types of action thresholds are called "economic thresholds." For example, when the number of insects on a particular crop exceeds a given quantity, an insecticide application to prevent economic damage could be justified.

In some pest control situations, the threshold level is zero: even a single pest in such a situation is unreasonably harmful. For example, the presence of any rodents in food processing facilities forces action. In homes, people generally take action to control some pests, such as rodents or roaches, even if only one or a few have been seen.





Toxic effects, Manifestations of

‘‘Toxic effects, Manifestations of; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Most nonlethal toxic effects are reversible and do not cause permanent damage, but complete recovery may take a long time. However, some poisons cause irreversible (permanent) damage. Poisons can affect just one particular organ system, or they may produce generalized toxicity by affecting a number of systems. The type of toxicity is generally subdivided into categories based on the major organ systems affected. Some of these are listed in table 4 -6.


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Although natural and synthetic chemicals may cause a variety of toxic effects at high enough doses, the effect that is of most concern in the United States is cancer. This is not surprising considering the high incidence of this disease, its often-fatal outcome, and the overall cost to society. To decide on the risk that a particular carcinogen poses, it is important to determine how much of the chemical will cause how many cases of cancer in a specified population. This value can then be compared to what is considered an acceptable risk. Currently, the commonly accepted increase in risk of cancer is one additional cancer in one million people.

Acceptable carcinogen exposure levels (set by EPA) generally represent what is called the "worst case" exposure. An assumption made in the calculation of worst-case exposure levels is that humans will be exposed to the same concentration of the chemical every day of their lives for 70 years. As a result, the published acceptable risk level does not necessarily represent the "safe level, "but rather a target level with the expectation that the true risk to exposure is less than the published value. The exposure criteria are guidelines for the protection of sensitive elements of the population and are calculated with many factors of uncertainty (the relationship of animal toxicity to human toxicity, for instance).

Cholinesterase (ko-li-nes-ter-ace) is one of many important enzymes needed for the proper functioning of the nervous systems of humans, other vertebrates, and insects. Certain chemical classes of pesticides, such as organophosphates (OPs), carbamates, and chlorinated derivatives of nicotine (imidacloprid), work against undesirable bugs by interfering with or inhibiting cholinesterase. While the effects of cholinesterase-inhibiting products are intended for insect pests, these chemicals can also be poisonous or toxic to humans in some situations.

Organophosphate insecticides include some of the most toxic pesticides. They can enter the human body through skin absorption, inhalation, and ingestion. They can affect cholinesterase activity in red blood cells and in blood plasma and can act directly, or in combination with other enzymes, on cholinesterase in the body.

Carbamates are similar to organophosphates in that they vary widely in toxicity and work by inhibiting plasma cholinesterase.

Imidacloprid is a recently introduced synthetic insecticide that is similar to nicotine. It mimics the action of acetocholine by binding to the postsynaptic nicotinic Receptor. However, nicotine and imidacloprid are insensitive to the action of acetocholinesterase and, therefore, bind persistently to the receptor that leads to nerve overstimulation. This results in hyperexcitation, onvulsions, paralysis, and death. Because the nicotinergic neuronal pathway is more abundant in insects, these compounds are selectively more toxic to insects than mammals.

Overexposure to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides can result in low blood pressure, slow heartbeat, breathing difficulty, and possibly death if not promptly treated by a physician.

EPA defines endocrine disrupters as compounds that "interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis (normal cell metabolism), reproduction, development, and/or behavior. "Many endocrine disrupters are thought to mimic hormones, such as estrogen or testosterone. They have chemical properties similar to hormones that allow binding to hormonen specific receptors on the cells of target organs. A number of pesticides are suspected endoctrine disruptors, but EPA has not yet confirmed these preliminary findings.



Toxicity: "The dose makes the poison"

‘‘Toxicity: "The dose makes the poison"; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

One of the more commonly used measures of toxicity is the LD50.The LD50 (lethal dose for 50 percent of the animals tested) of a poison is generally expressed in milligrams of chemical per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg).A chemical with a small LD50 is highly toxic. A chemical that has a large LD50 is unlikely to have lethal effects, but may still produce illness. Table 4 -4 shows exposure measurement.


<I file="graphics\tab4_4.jpg"></H>


LC50 (lethal concentration for 50 percent of the animals tested)is often used for toxicity to aquatic species.

LD50 and LC50 vary by species and exposure pathway (for example, oral versus dermal), so comparable studies must be used to evaluate one pesticide versus another.

MATC (maximum acceptable toxicant concentration) is a long-term acceptable toxicity for fish. An MATC can be determined empirically by performing lifetime or long-term toxicity tests for fish. Alternatively, MATC's can be estimated from LC50s.

Toxicity assessment is complex because environmental stress factors (temperature, food, and light) and species diversity (age, sex, health, and hormonal status)can cause results to vary widely (table 4 -5).


<I file="graphics\tab4_5.jpg"></H>


Comparing acute toxic effects based on LD50s or LC50s alone is an oversimplified approach in that the LD50s or LC50s are only one point on the dose-response curve that reflects the potential of the compound to cause death. What is more important in assessing chemical safety is the threshold dose and the slope of the dose-response curve, which shows how fast the response increases as the dose increases. Figure 4 -4 provides examples of dose-response curves for two chemicals that have the same LD50.


<I file="graphics\fig4_4.jpg"></H>


A true assessment of a chemical's toxicity involves comparisons of numerous acute and long-term dose-response curves covering many types of toxic effects. The determination of which pesticides will be restricted use pesticides uses this approach. Some restricted use pesticides have large LD50s (low acute oral toxicity); however, they may be strong skin or eye irritants that require special handling.

The knowledge gained from dose-response studies in animals is used to set standards for human exposure and the amount of chemical residue that is allowed in the environment. As mentioned previously, numerous dose-response relationships must be determined in many different species. Without this information, the health risks associated with chemical exposure are impossible to accurately predict. Adequate information helps to make informed decisions about chemical exposure so that the risk to human health and the environment is minimized.




Transportation of Pesticides

‘‘Transportation of Pesticides; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

You are responsible for the safe transport of pesticides in your possession. Carelessness in transporting pesticides can result in broken containers, spills, environmental contamination, and harm to yourself and others. Accidents can occur even when transporting materials a short distance. Do all you can to prevent a mishap, but be prepared in case of emergency. Before transporting pesticides, know what to do if a spill occurs. If any pesticide is spilled in or from the vehicle, take action right away to make sure the spill is cleaned up correctly.




Transportation of Pesticides, Transportation Labeling Statements

‘‘Transportation of Pesticides, Transportation Labeling Statements; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Typical pesticide labeling instructions about transportation include:

"Do not ship with food, feeds, drugs, or clothing."

"Do not transport damaged or leaking containers."

"In case of a transportation emergency involving a spill, fire, or exposure, call [telephone number] 24 hours a day."

"Do not transport in or on vehicles containing foodstuffs or feeds."




Transportation of Pesticides, Transporting Pesticide Containers

‘‘Transportation of Pesticides, Transporting Pesticide Containers; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

Transport pesticides only in containers with intact, undamaged, and readable labels. Inspect containers before loading to be sure that all caps, plugs, and other openings are tightly closed and that there are no pesticides on the outside of the containers. Handle containers carefully to avoid rips or punctures.

Anchor all containers securely to keep them from rolling or sliding. Packing or shipping containers provide extra cushioning. Protect paper and cardboard containers from moisture, because they become soggy and split easily when wet.

Protect pesticides from extreme temperatures during transport. Extremely hot or cold temperatures can damage pesticide containers by causing them to melt or become brittle. Such temperatures also may reduce the usefulness of the pesticides.




Transportation of Pesticides, Vehicle Safety

‘‘Transportation of Pesticides, Vehicle Safety; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The safest way to transport pesticides is in the back of a truck. Flatbed trucks should have side and tail racks. Steel or plastic-lined beds are best because they can be more easily cleaned if a spill occurs.

Never carry pesticides in the passenger section of your car, van, or truck. Hazardous vapors may be released and make the driver and other passengers ill. Pesticides may cause illness or injury if they spill on you or your passengers. It is nearly impossible to completely remove spills from the fabric of seats and floor mats. They can cause future contamination if they are not cleaned up correctly. If you must transport pesticides in the back of a station wagon, open the side windows and do not allow anyone to ride in the back.

Never allow children, other passengers, and pets to be exposed to pesticides during transportation.

Never transport pesticides with food, clothing, or other things meant to be eaten by or come into contact with people or animals. The risk of contamination is too high. Even small amounts of pesticide could contaminate these highly sensitive items. A spill could cause major injury.

Never leave your vehicle unattended when transporting pesticides in an unlocked trunk compartment or open-bed truck. You are responsible and liable if curious children or careless adults are accidentally poisoned by the pesticides. Whenever possible, transport pesticides in a locked compartment.

Consider transporting highly volatile pesticides in separate trips from other chemicals. Spills, or even fumes from opened containers, can make the other chemicals worthless.




Transportation, Storage, Disposal, and Spill Cleanup

‘‘Transportation, Storage, Disposal, and Spill Cleanup; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

When you transport, store, or dispose of pesticides and their containers, you must take safety precautions. You can prevent many pesticide accidents and reduce the severity of others, if you are well prepared. Before beginning any pesticide handling task, know what do to in case of spills and have the proper cleanup equipment on hand.




Trapping with conservation buffers

‘‘Trapping with conservation buffers; Core4 Conservation Practices, NRCS’‘

Pesticides vary in how tightly they are sorbed (adsorbed and/or absorbed) to soil particles. Degree of soil binding is measured by binding coefficients or K values. K oc is a type of K value that is normalized for organic carbon content. K oc is a measure of sorption to the organic matter and clay fractions of soil, with higher K oc values indicating tighter binding. K oc values can be used to predict whether a specific pesticide will be carried primarily with organic matter and clay in runoff sediment or dissolved in runoff water. K oc values greater than 1,000 indicate that pesticides are very strongly adsorbed to soil. Eroded soil carries the majority of this kind of chemical leaving fields in runoff. Thus, if conservation buffers are effective in trapping sediment, they will be effective in trapping this type of pesticide.

Pesticides with lower K oc values (less than 300 to 500) tend to move more dissolved in runoff water than sorbed to runoff sediment .Concentrations carried on sediment are higher than concentrations in water, but because water quantities running off fields are so much greater than eroded soil quantities, water accounts for the majority of this type of chemical leaving fields. To be effective in trapping this type of pesticide, buffers need to increase water infiltration or maximize contact of runoff with vegetation that may sorb pesticide.




Type of formulation

‘‘Type of formulation; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The front panel of some pesticide labels will tell you what kind of formulation the product is. The formulation may be named or the label may show only an abbreviation, such as WP for wettable powder, D for dust, or EC for emulsifiable concentrate.




Type of pesticide

‘‘Type of pesticide; Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA’‘

The type of pesticide usually is listed on the front panel of the label. This short statement indicates in general terms what the product will control. For example:

"insecticide for control of certain insects on fruits, nuts, and ornamentals"

"algicide"

"herbicide for the control of trees, brush, and weeds"




Vertebrate Pests, Controls

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Techniques for control of vertebrate pests depend on whether the pest problem is indoors or outdoors.

Indoor vertebrate pest control usually is aimed at eradicating existing pest infestations and preventing new pests from getting in. Nearly all indoor vertebrate pests are rodents, but others, such as bats, birds, and raccoons, also may require control.

Outdoors, the strategy usually is to suppress the vertebrate pest population to a level where the damage or injury is economically acceptable.

Local and State laws may prohibit the killing or trapping of some animals such as birds, coyotes, muskrats, and beavers without special permits. Before you begin a control program, check with local authorities, such as fish and wildlife officials or the State agency responsible for pesticide regulation.

Methods of vertebrate pest control include:

  • mechanical control,
  • biological control,
  • sanitation, and
  • chemical control.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Biological Control

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Biological Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

in some circumstances, vertebrate pests can be suppressed by increasing the presence of their predators. developing habitats for birds that prey on rodents, using cats for rodent control, and using dogs to protect sheep from coyotes are examples of this type of control.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Chemical Control

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Chemical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides for rodent pest control usually are formulated in baits. Because the chemicals may be highly toxic to people, livestock, and other animals, correct bait placement is important. To use baits effectively, you need a thorough knowledge of the pest's habits.

Few pesticides are available for control of vertebrate pests other than rodents, and most of them require special local permits for use. The chemicals that are registered are usually bait applications. A few chemicals designed for aquatic pests or massive populations of pest birds are used as broadcast applications. The chemicals used to control vertebrate pests include rodenticides, piscicides (fish), avicides (birds), and predacides (predators).




Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Attractants

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Attractants; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Many techniques, such as light and sound, are used to attract pests to a trap. Predator calling is sometimes used to attract large predators when it is necessary to control them by gunning.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Barriers

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Barriers; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Barriers are designed to prevent pests from passing through. These include fences, screens, and other barriers that cover openings, stop tunneling, and prevent gnawing. Materials used include sheet metal, hardware cloth, concrete, and similar materials. Barriers are especially effective in preventing rodents, bats, and birds from entering structures.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Gunning

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Gunning; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Gunning is an expensive and time-consuming way to achieve vertebrate control. It works best in combination with other methods. It may be useful for large predators not controlled by traps or toxic devices. Permits may be required.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Repellents

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Repellents; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Repellents are devices aimed at keeping pests from doing damage. They include such things as automatic exploders, noisemakers, recordings of scare calls, moving objects, and lights. These devices do not always provide good control. Their success often depends on where they are placed. The effectiveness of electromagnetic and ultrasonic rodent repellers is particularly questionable.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Traps

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control, Traps; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Traps are sometimes a good choice for vertebrate pest control. Leg-hold traps have been used traditionally, but these traps cause the trapped animal to suffer and may injure nontarget animals. Traps that quickly kill only target pests are better. Baited box traps may be a good choice; it is sometimes possible to relocate captured animals to another area. Check traps daily to maintain their effectiveness.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Mechanical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Mechanical control methods for vertebrate pests include traps, barriers, gunning, attractants, and repellents.


Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Sanitation

‘‘Vertebrate Pests, Controls -- Sanitation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Removing sources of food and shelter helps to suppress some vertebrate pests. Sanitation techniques are used widely to manage rodents in and around structures.


Vertebrate Pests

‘‘Vertebrate Pests; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

All vertebrate animals have a jointed backbone. They include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Most vertebrate animals are not pests, but a few can be pests in some situations.

Some vertebrate pests, such as birds, rodents, raccoons, or deer, may eat or injure agricultural and ornamental crops. Birds and mammals may eat newly planted seed. Birds and rodents consume stored food and often contaminate and ruin more than they eat. Birds and mammals that prey on livestock and poultry cause costly losses to ranchers each year.

Rodents, other mammals, and some birds may carry serious diseases of humans and domestic animals such as rabies, plague, and tularemia. Rodents are an annoyance and a health hazard when they get into buildings.

Burrowing and gnawing mammals may damage dams, drainage and irrigation tunnels, turf, and outdoor wood products such as building foundations. Beavers may harm desirable plants, and they may cause flooding by building dams.

Undesirable fish species may crowd out desirable food and sport species. The few poisonous species of snakes and lizards become a problem when people, livestock, or pets are threatened. Water snakes and turtles may cause disruption or harm in fish hatcheries or waterfowl nesting reserves. Amphibians occasionally clog water outlets, filters, pipes, hoses, and other equipment associated with irrigation systems and drains.


Weeds

‘‘Weeds; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Any plant can be considered a weed when it is growing where it is not wanted. Weeds become a problem when they reduce crop yields, increase costs of production, and reduce the quality of crop and livestock products. In addition, some weeds cause allergic effects, such as skin irritation and hay fever, and some are poisonous to people and livestock. Weeds also spoil the beauty of turf and landscape plantings.

Weeds harm desirable plants by:

  • competing for water, nutrients, light, and space,
  • contaminating the product at harvest,
  • harboring pest insects, mites, vertebrates, or plant disease agents, and
  • releasing toxins into the soil that inhibit growth of desirable plants.

Weeds may become pests in water by:

  • hindering fish growth and reproduction,
  • promoting mosquito production,
  • hindering boating, fishing, and swimming, and
  • clogging irrigation ditches, drainage ditches, and channels.

Weeds can interfere in the production of grazing animals by:

  • poisoning the animals, and
  • causing an "off-flavor" in milk and meat.

In cultivated crops, the weeds usually found are those that are favored by the crop production practices. The size and kind of weed problem often depends more on the crop production method, especially the use or nonuse of cultivation, than on the crop species involved.

In noncrop areas, weed populations may be affected by factors such as:

  • weed control programs used in the past,
  • frequency of mowing or other traffic in the area, and
  • susceptibility to herbicides.


Weed Control

‘‘Weed Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Weed control is nearly always designed to prevent or suppress a weed infestation. Eradication usually is attempted only in regulatory weed programs and in relatively small, confined areas, such as greenhouses or plant beds.

To control weeds that are growing among or close to desirable plants, you must take advantage of the differences between the weeds and the desired species. Be sure that the plants you are trying to protect are not susceptible to the weed control method you choose. Generally, the more similar the desirable plant and the weed species are to one another, the more difficult weed control becomes. For example, broadleaf weeds are usually more difficult to control in broadleaf crops, and grass weeds are often difficult to control in grass crops.

A plan to control weeds may include:

  • biological control,
  • cultural control,
  • sanitation, and
  • chemical control.


Weed Control, Biological Control

‘‘Weed Control, Biological Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Biological weed control usually involves the use of insects and disease-causing agents that attack certain weed species. An example is the control of musk thistle with the thistle head weevil.

Effective biological control requires two things:

1. the insect or disease must affect only the weed requiring control; otherwise, it may spread to other species -- such as crops and ornamentals -- and become a pest itself.

2. the insects must have few natural enemies that interfere with their activity.

Grazing is another form of biological control sometimes used to control plant growth along ditches, fence rows, noncropland areas, forage crops, and roadsides. Sheep and goats are used most often, but geese are used for weeding some crops, such as strawberries.


Weed Control, Chemical Control

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some weed problems can best be controlled with the use of herbicides. Several factors affect a plant's susceptibility to herbicides:


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Deactivation

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Deactivation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Certain plants can stop the action of herbicides and so are less susceptible to injury from these chemicals. Such plants may become dominant over a period of time if similar herbicides are used repeatedly.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Growing points

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Growing points; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Those that are sheathed or located below the soil surface are not reached by contact herbicide sprays.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Leaf hairs

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Leaf hairs; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

A dense layer of leaf hairs holds the herbicide droplets away from the leaf surface, allowing less chemical to be absorbed into the plant. A thin layer of leaf hairs causes the chemical to stay on the leaf surface longer than normal, allowing more chemical to be absorbed into the plant.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Leaf shape

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Leaf shape; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Herbicides tend to bounce or run off narrow, upright leaves. Broad, flat leaves tend to hold the herbicide longer.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Size and age

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Size and age; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Young, rapidly growing plants are more

susceptible to herbicides than are larger, more mature plants.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Stage in life cycle

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Stage in life cycle; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Seedlings are very susceptible to herbicides and to most other weed control practices. Plants in the vegetative and early bud stages are generally very susceptible to translocated herbicides. Plants with seeds or in the maturity stage are the least susceptible to most chemical weed control practices.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Timing of stages in the life cycle

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Timing of stages in the life cycle; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plants that germinate and develop at different times than the crop species may be susceptible to carefully timed herbicide applications without risk of injury to the crop.


Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Waxy cuticle

‘‘Weed Control, Chemical Control -- Waxy cuticle; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sprays applied to leaves may be prevented from entering by a thick, waxy cuticle. The waxy surface also may cause a spray solution to form droplets and run off the leaves.


Weed Control, Cultural Control

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Several kinds of practices can be used in cultivated plants to make it more difficult for weeds to survive. Most of these techniques work by disrupting the normal relationship between the weed and the crop.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Burning

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Burning; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Fire may be used to control limited infestations of annual or biennial weeds. Because fire destroys only the aboveground parts of plants, it is a good choice for control of woody plants in some situations, but usually will not control other types of perennial weeds that have underground growing points.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Flooding

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Flooding; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Flooding has long been used for weed control in rice. The water covers the entire weed, killing it by suffocation.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Mowing

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Mowing; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Mowing may reduce competition between weeds and crops and prevent flowering and seeding of annual, biennial, and perennial weeds. Mowing is often used in orchards to control weeds and prevent soil erosion. The mower must be set at a height that will ensure control of weed plants without destroying desired plants. Mowing is an important aspect of turfgrass weed control.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Mulching

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Mulching; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

By serving as a physical barrier and by keeping light from reaching weed seeds, mulching prevents weed growth between rows, around trees and shrubs, or in other areas where no plants are desired.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Nurse crops

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Nurse crops; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plant species (usually annuals) that germinate quickly and grow rapidly are sometimes planted with a perennial crop to provide competition with weeds and allow the crop to become established. The nurse crop is then harvested or removed to allow the perennial crop to take over. For example, oats are sometimes used as a nurse crop to help establish alfalfa or clover. Annual ryegrass is sometimes used in mixtures to provide a nurse crop for perennial rye, fescue, or bluegrass.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Reduced tillage

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Reduced tillage; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

This method can reduce both weed growth and soil erosion. With limited tillage, weed seeds are not brought near the soil surface. Those that do germinate do not have as much light or space to get started. However, the remaining debris may harbor insects and plant disease agents.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Shading

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Shading; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Aquatic weeds are sometimes controlled by shading out the sunlight. Shading can be done, for example, by using floats of black plastic, adding dye to the water, or fertilizing to create plankton algae bloom that shades the bottom.

Land weeds can be shaded by planting crops so closely together that they keep the sunlight from reaching the emerging weeds.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Tillage

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Tillage; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Tillage is an effective and often-used method to kill or control weeds in row crops, nurseries, and forest plantings. However, tillage may bring buried seeds to the surface where they can either germinate and compete with the newly planted crop or be spread to nearby fields. Tillage can increase soil erosion and may help to spread established plant diseases to uninfected areas of the field. In some situations, weeds can be removed by hand weeding or hoeing.


Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Time of planting

‘‘Weed Control, Cultural Control -- Time of planting; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sometimes the planting date of crops and turfgrass can be delayed until after weeds have emerged and have been removed by cultivation or by herbicides.


Weed Control, Herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Just as there are many types of weeds, there also are many kinds of herbicides. they work in several different ways to control weeds. some herbicides are applied to the leaves and other aboveground parts of the plant (foliar applications) and some are applied to the soil.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Chemicals Changing Plant Processes

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Chemicals Changing Plant Processes; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plant growth regulators, defoliants, and desiccants are classified as pesticides in Federal laws. These chemicals are used on plants to alter normal plant processes in some way. Overdosing will kill or seriously damage the plants.

A plant growth regulator will speed up, stop, retard, prolong, promote, start, or in some other way influence vegetative or reproductive growth of a plant. These chemicals are sometimes called growth regulators or plant regulators. They are used, for example, to thin apples, control suckers on tobacco, control the height of some floral potted plants, promote dense growth of ornamentals, and stimulate rooting.

A defoliant causes the leaves to drop from plants without killing the plants. A desiccant speeds up the drying of plant leaves, stems, or vines. Desiccants and defoliants are often called "harvest aid" chemicals. They usually are used to make harvesting of a crop easier or to advance the time of harvest. They are often used on cotton, soybeans, tomatoes, and potatoes.




Weed Control, Herbicides -- Contact herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Contact herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Contact herbicides kill only the parts of the plant the chemical touches. They usually are used to control annuals and biennials and are characterized by the quick dieback they cause.

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Weed Control, Herbicides -- Contact/Translocated

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Contact/Translocated; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some herbicides kill plants on contact; others work by translocation (moving throughout the plant's system).

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Weed Control, Herbicides -- Factors affecting selectivity

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Factors affecting selectivity; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Herbicide selectivity may vary according to the application rate. High rates of selective herbicides usually will injure all plants at the application site. Some nonselective herbicides can be used selectively by applying them at a lower rate.

Other factors that affect selectivity include the time and method of application, environmental conditions, and the stage of plant growth.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-contact-nonpersistent-nonselective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-contact-nonpersistent-nonselective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Some herbicides are applied to weed leaves either when the crop is not present or when the crop is taller than the weeds and the herbicide can be directed underneath it. These herbicides kill all foliage that is contacted, but do not move readily to underground parts of the plant.

Since the crown or root systems of biennial and perennial weeds normally have dormant and protected buds that can produce new growth, these weeds will recover after being treated with a contact herbicide. Small annual weeds are completely controlled. For example, paraquat, applied before no-till corn or used as a directed spray underneath fruit trees, will control seedling annual weeds. Diquat is used as a preharvest aid to kill potato vines and make harvest easier.

These types of herbicides are commonly mixed with persistent herbicides to control the regrowth of biennial and perennial weeds plus any newly emerging weeds growing from seed.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-contact-nonpersistent-selective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-contact-nonpersistent-selective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These herbicides also kill weeds by contact on the leaves and do not readily move to underground plant parts. They control seedling weeds; biennial and perennial weeds with dormant buds will regrow. Due to differences in plant structure or leaf surfaces, certain plants are not harmed by these chemicals. This makes the herbicides selective.

Acifluorfen, for example, is used for annual morningglory control in soybeans. One reason that the soybeans are unharmed is that the hairs on their leaves prevent the herbicide from reaching the leaf surface. Bromoxynil is used to control broadleaf annual weeds in small grains. It is selective partly because of differences in the way the grain crop (grass-type) leaves and the broadleaf weed leaves are oriented.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-translocated-nonpersistent-nonselective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-translocated-nonpersistent-nonselective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These herbicides are applied to the foliage and are absorbed and moved throughout the entire plant. Movement of the herbicide into the plant root system enables these compounds to control biennial and perennial weeds.

Since they are nonselective, most are used before planting and after harvesting. But if the weeds are taller than the crop, such as volunteer corn in grain, special equipment can be used to "wick" the herbicide onto the weeds without harming the crop.

These herbicides usually do not persist after application and will not control dormant weeds or weeds that germinate from seed after the herbicide is applied. Sometimes a more persistent herbicide is applied with or after these types of herbicides to give continued weed control.

Glyphosate is an example of a foliar-translocated-nonpersistent-nonselective herbicide used to control weeds in an area before or after planting (or "wicked" onto weeds that are taller than the desired plants).


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-translocated-nonpersistent-selective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Foliar-translocated-nonpersistent-selective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These herbicides are some of the oldest and most widely used weed-control chemicals. After they are applied to the foliage, they are absorbed and move throughout the plant. They are selective and can be applied to weeds while the crop is present with little or no harm to the desirable plants.

The best example of this type of herbicide is 2,4-D. It kills broadleaf weeds in grass crops, such as oats, wheat, barley, corn, and turfgrass. Dicamba is used for hard-to-control weeds such as thistle, common milkweed, horsenettle, and hedge or field bindweed in corn. It is also used in grass pastures, small grains, and rangelands. Other herbicides in this group include triclopyr and 2,4-DP. These herbicides are used for brush control along fence lines and on rangelands, pastures, and rights-of-way. By selectively killing brushy-type plants without killing grass, less bare ground is left once the brush dies.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-contact-nonpersistent-nonselective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-contact-nonpersistent-nonselective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Only a few herbicides belong to this group. The most common are soil fumigants, which kill all plants and many seeds in the treated area. These fumigants are injected deeply into the soil or are sealed into the soil with water, plastic tarps, or other gas-tight covers. The fumigant is kept sealed into the treated soil for a short "exposure" period. Then the water is allowed to evaporate, the coverings are removed, and/or the soil is aerated to allow the remaining fumigant gas to escape. Usually the treated area can be planted without injury immediately following the aeration period, making these soil fumigants one of the least persistent herbicides available.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-translocated-nonpersistent-selective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-translocated-nonpersistent-selective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These herbicides are applied to soil before, at, or immediately after planting and are often referred to as preplant or preemergence-type herbicides. They typically persist for 2 to 4 months. Almost all soil-applied herbicides used for weed control in vegetable, agronomic (except small grain) crops, turfgrass, ornamental, and flower crops are this type. They are applied to the soil and are primarily root or shoot absorbed, although some may be absorbed through leaves. Examples include atrazine on corn, linuron on potatoes, and EPTC on ornamentals -- all of which persist from 6 weeks to an entire growing season.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-translocated-persistent-nonselective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-translocated-persistent-nonselective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These herbicides are used to control all vegetation in an area for an extended period of time. They may be used around farm buildings. For example, bromacil at high label rates, remains active for 3 to 5 years. At these high rates, bromacil will kill most brush and tree species in a treated area.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-translocated-persistent-selective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection, Soil-translocated-persistent-selective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

These herbicides are used to control weeds in deeply rooted crops such as fruit, nut, and ornamental trees, cane fruits, and grapes. They may be applied to the foliage of the weeds, although most of the herbicide is eventually absorbed through the weeds' root system.

These herbicides do not dissolve readily in water and do not leach readily. Therefore, they usually do not move down to the root system of deeply rooted crops. They usually persist for more than a year. For example, simazine will control shallow-rooted weeds without injuring deeply rooted crops.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Herbicide Selection; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The specific pesticide products mentioned in this section are intended only as examples, not as endorsements or recommendations.

You need to choose the combination of herbicide type and application method (foliar or soil) that will provide the best control. In making the choice, use your knowledge of the weed itself, herbicide characteristics, and the crop or area to be treated. Follow the directions on the herbicide label carefully.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Nonpersistent herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Nonpersistent herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Pesticides that quickly break down after application are called nonpersistent. These pesticides are often broken down easily by microorganisms or sunlight. A nonpersistent herbicide performs its control function soon after application and then is no longer active against weeds.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Nonselective herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Nonselective herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Nonselective herbicides, if applied at an adequate rate, will kill all plants in the area. They are used where no plant growth is wanted, such as fence rows, irrigation and drainage ditch banks, and greenhouse floors and benches.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Persistent herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Persistent herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The chemical structure of persistent herbicides does not change for a long time after application. Persistent herbicides may stay on or in the soil and give long-term weed control without repeated applications. If sensitive plants are later planted in the treated area, these herbicides may injure them. Persistent herbicides are sometimes called "residual" herbicides.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Persistent/Nonpersistent

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Persistent/Nonpersistent; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Herbicides also vary in the length of time they remain active after they are applied.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Selective herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Selective herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Selective herbicides are used to kill weeds without causing significant damage to desirable plants nearby. They are used to reduce weed competition in crops, lawns, and ornamental plantings.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Selective/Nonselective

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Selective/Nonselective; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Herbicide activity is either selective or nonselective.


Weed Control, Herbicides -- Translocated herbicides

‘‘Weed Control, Herbicides -- Translocated herbicides; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Translocated herbicides are absorbed by roots or leaves and carried throughout the plant. Translocated herbicides are particularly effective against perennial weeds, because the chemical reaches all parts of the plant -- even deep roots and woody stems. Translocated herbicides may take longer than contact herbicides to provide the desired results. Control may take as much as 2 or 3 weeks -- even longer for woody perennials.


Weed Control, Sanitation

‘‘Weed Control, Sanitation; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Using "clean" seeds -- those contaminated with few weed seeds -- is a good way to reduce weed problems. If you buy seed, read the seed purity information on the label. It will indicate the approximate percent, by weight, of weed seeds and other- crop seeds in the container. If you grow your own seed, pay particular attention to weed control in the crops grown for seed production, and consider having a representative sample tested for purity.


Weed, Classification -- Algae

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Algae; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Algae are aquatic plants without true stems, leaves, or vascular systems. For control purposes, they may be classified as:

  • planktonic algae -- microscopic plants floating in the water. They often multiply rapidly and cause "blooms" in which the water appears soupy green, brown, or reddish brown, depending on the algal type.
  • filamentous algae -- long, thin strands of algae that form floating mats or long strings extending from rocks, bottom sediment, or other underwater surfaces. Examples are cladophora and spirogyra.
  • macroscopic freshwater algae -- large algae that look like vascular aquatic plants. The two should not be confused, because their control is different. Many are attached to the bottom and grow up to 2 feet tall; however, they have no true roots, stems, or leaves. Examples are chara and nitella.


Weed, Classification -- Aquatic Plants

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Aquatic Plants; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plants that are present in bodies of water may be pests in some agricultural situations. There are two types of aquatic plants -- vascular plants and algae.


Weed, Classification -- Broadleaf weeds

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Broadleaf weeds; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

The seedlings of broadleaf weeds have two leaves as they emerge from the seed. Their leaves are generally broad with netlike veins. Broadleaf weeds usually have a taproot and a relatively coarse root system. All actively growing broadleaf plants have exposed growing points at the end of each stem and in each leaf axil. Perennial broadleaf plants may also have growing points on roots and stems above and below the surface of the soil. Broadleaves contain species with annual, biennial, and perennial life cycles.


Weed, Classification -- Grasses

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Grasses; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Grass seedlings have only one leaf as they emerge from the seed. Their leaves are generally narrow and upright with parallel veins. Grass stems are round and may be either hollow or solid. Most grasses have fibrous root systems. The growing point on seedling grasses is sheathed and located below the soil surface. Some grass species are annuals; others are perennials.


Weed, Classification -- Land Plants

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Land Plants; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Most weeds on land are either grasses, sedges, or broadleaf plants.


Weed, Classification -- Parasitic Seed Plants

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Parasitic Seed Plants; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Dodders, broomrape, witchweed, and some mosses are important weeds on some agricultural plants. They live on and get their food from the host plants. They can severely stunt and even kill the host plants by using the host plant's water, food, and minerals. These plants reproduce by seeds. Some can also spread from plant to plant in close stands by vining and twining.


Weed, Classification -- Sedges

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Sedges; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Sedges are similar to grasses except that they have triangular stems and three rows of leaves. They are often listed under grasses on the pesticide label. Most sedges are found in wet places, but principal pest species are found in fertile, well-drained soils. Yellow and purple nutsedge are perennial weed species that produce rhizomes and tubers.


Weed, Classification -- Vascular plants

‘‘Weed, Classification -- Vascular plants; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Many aquatic plants are similar to land plants -- they have stems, leaves, flowers, and roots. Most act as perennial plants, dying back and becoming dormant in the fall and beginning new growth in the spring. They are classified as:

  • emergent (emersed) -- most of the plant extends above the water surface, but it is rooted to the bottom. Examples are cattails, bulrushes, arrowheads, and reeds.
  • floating -- all or part of the plant floats on the surface. Examples are duckweeds, waterlettuce, and waterhyacinth.
  • submergent (submersed) -- most of the plant grows beneath the water surface. Examples are watermilfoil, elodea, naiads, pondweeds, and coontail.

Emergent and floating plants, like some land plants, have a thick outer layer on their leaves and stems that hinders herbicide absorption. Submergent plants have a very thin outer layer on their leaves and stems and are susceptible to herbicidal activity.


Weed, Development Stages

‘‘Weed, Development Stages; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

All crop plants have four stages of development:

1. seedling -- small, delicate plantlets.

2. vegetative -- fast growth; production of stems, roots, and leaves. Uptake and movement of water and nutrients is fast and thorough.

3. seed production -- energy directed to producing flowers and seed. Uptake of water and nutrients is slow and is directed mainly to flower, fruit, and seed structures.

4. maturity -- little or no energy production or movement of water and nutrients.


Weed, Life Cycles of -- Annuals

‘‘Weed, Life Cycles of -- Annuals; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plants with a 1-year life cycle are annuals. They grow from seed, mature, and produce seed for the next generation in 1 year or less. They are grasslike (crabgrass and foxtail) or have broad leaves (henbit and common cocklebur).

There are two types:

  • Summer annuals are plants that grow from seeds that germinate in the spring. They grow, mature, produce seed, and die before winter. Examples: crabgrass, foxtail, common cocklebur, pigweed, and common lambsquarters.
  • Winter annuals are plants that grow from seeds that germinate in the fall. They grow, mature, produce seed, and die before summer. Examples: cheat, henbit, and annual bluegrass.


Weed, Life Cycles of -- Biennials

‘‘Weed, Life Cycles of -- Biennials; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plants with a 2-year life cycle are biennials. They grow from seed and develop a heavy root and compact cluster of leaves (called a rosette) the first year. In the second year, they mature, produce seed, and die. Examples: mullein, burdock, and bullthistle.


Weed, Life Cycles of -- Perennials

‘‘Weed, Life Cycles of -- Perennials; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Plants that live more than 2 years are perennials. Some perennial plants mature and reproduce in the first year and then repeat the vegetative, seed production, and maturity stages for several following years. In other perennials, the seed production and maturity stages may be delayed for several years. Some perennial plants die back each winter; others, such as deciduous trees, may lose their leaves, but do not die back to the ground. Most perennials grow from seed; many species also produce tubers, bulbs, rhizomes (below-ground rootlike stems), or stolons (aboveground stems that produce roots). Examples of perennials are Johnson grass, field bindweed, dandelion, and plantain.

  • Simple perennials normally reproduce by seeds. However, root pieces that may be left by cultivation can produce new plants. Examples: dandelions, plantain, trees, and shrubs.
  • Bulbous perennials may reproduce by seed, bulblets, or bulbs. Wild garlic, for example, produces seed and bulblets above ground and bulbs below ground.
  • Creeping perennials produce seeds but also produce rhizomes (below-ground stems) or stolons (aboveground stems that produce roots). Examples: Johnson grass, field bindweed, and Bermuda grass.


Weights and Measures

‘‘Weights and Measures; Applying Pesticides Correctly -- Private Applicator Supplement, EPA and USDA’‘

Weights

16 ounces = 1 pound

1 gallon water = 8.34 pounds

Liquid Measure

1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons

16 fluid ounces = 1 pint

2 pints = 1 quart

8 pints = 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 128 fluid ounces

Length

3 feet = 1 yard

16 1/2 feet = 1 rod

5,280 feet = 320 rods = 1 mile

Area

9 square feet = 1 square yard

43,560 square feet = 160 square rods = 1 acre

Speed

1.466 feet per second = 88 feet per minute = 1 mph

Volume

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard


WIN PST Reports

‘‘WIN_PST Reports’‘

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Appendix: Effects on Human Body

‘‘Appendix: Effects on Human Body; (Applying Pesticides Correctly, EPA and USDA)’‘



Acetamides

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Moderately irritating to skin and eyes.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Aliphatic Acids

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Alkyl Phthalates

Action on Human System - Irritants; low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Stomach lining and intestine lining irritation.

Irritation Effects - Severely irritating to eyes and mucous membranes; not irritating to skin.

Type of Pesticide - Insect repellent



Anilides

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Skin sensitizers.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Arsenicals

Action on Human System - Irritants; harms liver, kidney, brain, bone marrow, and nervous system.

Systemic Effects - Headache, burning stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, garlic odor on breath and feces.

Irritation Effects - Swelling of mouth and throat, irritating to eyes, nose, and throat.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Accumulates in body, chronic headaches, dizziness, stomach aches, salivation, low fever, garlic breath; skin, liver, kidney, and blood system disorders; possible skin and lung cancer.

Type of Pesticide - Rodenticides, insecticide, acaricides, marine antifouling compounds, desiccants, herbicides, fungicides.



Bacillus thuringiensis

Action on Human System - None known

Type of Pesticide - Insecticide



Benzamide

Action on Human System - Irritants; low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Occasionally irritating to skin.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicide



Benzoic Acid and Anisic Acid Derivatives

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritating to skin and respiratory tract.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Benzonitriles

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Moderately irritating to skin and respiratory tract.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Skin sensitizers.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides, fungicides



Benzothiadiazinone Dioxide

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates eyes and respiratory tract.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicide



Benzyl Benzoate

Action on Human System - Irritants; low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Occasionally irritating to skin.

Type of Pesticide - Acaricide



Boric Acid

Action on Human System - Irritant; harms stomach, intestines, blood system, and brain.

Systemic Effects - Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood in vomit and feces, headache, weakness, tremors, restlessness.

Irritation Effects - Irritates and burns skin and respiratory tract.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticide



Carbanilate

Action on Human System - Irritants; very weak or no inhibition of cholinesterase enzyme in tissues.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates skin, eyes, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Skin sensitizers.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Chlordimeform

Action on Human System - Harms bladder; sometimes harms skin.

Systemic Effects - Blood in urine, frequent and painful urination, abdominal and back pain, hot sensation, sleepiness.

Irritation Effects - Skin rash, sweet taste.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticide, miticides



Chlorobenzilate

Action on Human System - Irritants; low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Skin and eye irritant.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Tumors observed in laboratory animals.

Type of Pesticide - Acaricide



Chlorophenoxy Compounds

Action on Human System - Irritants; harms liver, kidney, and nervous system; may cause skin to discolor.

Systemic Effects - Do not remain in body, passed out within hours or days.

Irritation Effects - Irritating to eyes, skin, lungs, mucous membranes.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Severe disfiguring skin condition (chloracne) in manufacturing workers.

Type of Pesticide - Fungicides



Chloropyridinyl

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates skin and eyes.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Cyclohexenone Derivative

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritant

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Cyhexatin

Action on Human System - Irritants; probable harm to nervous system.

Systemic Effects - Probable headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, avoidance of light.

Irritation Effects - Mild skin irritant.

Type of Pesticide - Acaricide



Diethyltoluamide

Action on Human System - Irritant; low systemic toxicity, except to children.

Systemic Effects - Headache, restlessness, crying spells, stupor, tremors.

Irritation Effects - Very irritating to eyes, mild skin irritation and peeling, except severe skin irritation in tropical conditions.

Type of Pesticide - Insect repellent



Diflubenzuron, Teflubenzuron

Action on Human System - Low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Type of Pesticide - Insecticide



Dinitronaminobenzene Derivatives

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Moderately irritating.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides



Dithio and Thio Carbamates

Action on Human System - Irritants; very weak or no inhibition of cholinesterase enzyme in tissues.

Systemic Effects - Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness.

Irritation Effects - Irritates skin, eyes, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Skin sensitizers.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides, fungicides



Fluorides

Action on Human System - Harms brain and stomach.

Systemic Effects - Thirst, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, weakness, salivation, dilated pupils, lethargy.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides



Fluorodinitrotoluidine Compounds

Action on Human System - Irritants

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Mildly irritating.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides


Gibberellic Acid

Action on Human System - None known

Type of Pesticide - Growth regulator



Methoprene

Action on Human System - Very low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Type of Pesticide - Insecticide



Nicotine

Action on Human System - Harms nervous system.

Systemic Effects - Nausea, headache, diarrhea, dizziness,

shaking, abdominal pain, lack of coordination, sweating, salivation.

Irritation Effects - Minimal, but readily absorbed through the skin.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides



Nitrophenolic and Nitrocresolic Pesticides

Action on Human System - Harms liver, kidneys, and nervous system.

Systemic Effects - Headache, weakness, thirst, excessive sweating, feeling of overall illness; yellow stain on skin, hair, and urine is characteristic.

Irritation Effects - Moderately irritating sensations to skin, eyes, nose, and throat.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Weight loss, cataracts, glaucoma.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides.



N-Methyl Carbamates

Action on Human System - Reversible changes in acetylcholinesterase enzyme in tissues.

Systemic Effects - Headache, dizziness, weakness, shaking, nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea, sweating.

Irritation Effects - Minimal rashes, but readily absorbed through the skin.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Loss of appetite, weakness, weight loss, and general feeling of sickness.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticide, acaricides



Organochlorines (Chlorinated Hydrocarbons)

Action on Human System - Disrupt function of nervous system, mainly the brain.

Systemic Effects - Headache, dizziness, weakness, shaking, nausea, excitability, disorientation.

Irritation Effects - Minimal rashes, but readily absorbed through the skin.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - some buildup in the fat tissues. May cause nervousness, weakness, and shaking. Some buildup in glands and damage cells and hormone production.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides, acaricides



Organophosphates

Action on Human System - Inhibits acetylcholinesterase enzyme in tissues.

Systemic Effects - Headache, dizziness, weakness, shaking, nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea, sweating.

Irritation Effects - Minimal rashes, but readily absorbed through the skin.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Loss of appetite, weakness, weight loss, and general feeling of sickness. Occasionally permanent harm to brain and nervous system.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides, acaricides



Paraquat and Diquat

Action on Human System - Irritants; harms skin, nails, cornea, liver, kidney, linings of stomach and intestine, and heart. Severe delayed harm to lungs.

Systemic Effects - Burning pain in mouth, throat, stomach, and intestines, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, giddiness, fever.

Irritation Effects - Irritates and harms skin, nails, nose, and eyes.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides.



<R ref="3,3:Pentachlorophenol"> <cf clr="200 0 0">Pentachlorophenol===

Action on Human System - Irritant; harms liver, kidneys, and nervous system.

Systemic Effects - Headache, weakness, nausea, excessive sweating, dizziness, fever, rapid breathing, intense thirst, vomiting, restlessness.

Irritation Effects - Highly irritating to skin, eyes, nose, and throat.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Weight loss, weakness, anemia. Severe disfiguring skin disorder in manufacturing workers.

Type of Pesticide - Herbicides, defoliants, molluscicides, germicides, fungicides, and wood preservatives.



Propargite

Action on Human System - Irritants; low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Severe skin and eye irritant.

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Probable skin sensitizer.

Type of Pesticide - Acaricide



Pyrethroids

Action on Human System - Irritant

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Stinging, burning, itching, tingling, numbness of skin.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides



Pyrethrum and Pyrethrins

Action on Human System - Allergin

Systemic Effects - Slight toxic reaction.

Irritation Effects - Minimal

Delayed/Allergic Effects - Skin and respiratory tract allergic effects.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides, acaricides




Rotenone

Action on Human System - Irritant

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.

Type of Pesticide - Insecticides, acaricides



Sulfur

Action on Human System - Irritant; low systemic toxicity.

Systemic Effects - Minimal

Irritation Effects - Irritates eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.

Type of Pesticide - Acaricides, fungicide