Small Grains:Guidelines

From AgWiki
Jump to: navigation, search

GUIDELINES: SMALL GRAINS PRODUCTION



STATISTICS

graphics\bar.bmp

graphics\wheat.bmp



OUTLINE OF MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

Preplant

_____ Consider problems from previous seasons. _____ Determine available soil moisture and predicted seasonal rain. _____ Decide whether to rotate, fallow, or plant small grains crop. _____ Determine soil nutrient levels and apply preplant fertilizer as needed. _____ Plan irrigation method and prepare field accordingly. (Preirrigate if you use this technique.) _____ Select planting date. _____ Select cultivar and seed. _____ Determine seeding rate and planting depth. _____ Determine weed management strategies. _____ Plan management of small mammal pests if necessary. _____ Plan management of waterfowl or other bird pests if necessary.


Planting to emergence

_____ Prepare seedbed. _____ Apply fertilizer with seed as needed. _____ Apply supplemental irrigation if needed. _____ Control weed seedlings. _____ Manage small mammals if necessary. _____ Manage birds if necessary.

_____ Scout "SUSPECT INSECTS" Aphids Armyworms Bird Cherry-Oat Aphid Black Grass Bug Corn Leaf Aphid English Grain Aphid Grasshoppers Greenbug Mites Range Crane Fly Rose Grass Aphid Russian Wheat Aphid Stink Bugs Wheat Stem Maggot Wireworms

_____ Scout "SUSPECT WEEDS" barley, hare (Hordeum murinum ssp. leporinum) barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) bassia, fivehook (Bassia hyssopifolia) bindweed, field (Convolvulus arvensis) bluegrass, annual (Poa annua) brome, ripgut (Bromus diandrus) burclover, California (Medicago polymorpha) buttercup, crowfoot (Ranunculus sceleratus) canarygrass, hood (Phalaris paradoxa) canarygrass, littleseed (Phalaris minor) chamomile, mayweed (Anthemis cotula) chickweed, common (Stellaria media) fiddleneck, coast (Amsinckia menziesii var. intermedia) filarees (Erodium spp.) foxtails (yellow and green)(Setaria spp.) goatgrass, jointed (Aegilops cylindrica) goosefoot, nettleleaf (Chenopodium murale) groundsel, common (Senecio vulgaris) henbit (Lamium amplexicaule) johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) knotweed, prostrate (Polygonum aviculare) kochia (Kochia scoparia) lambsquarters, common (Chenopodium album) lettuce, prickly (Lactuca serriola) mallow, little; cheeseweed (Malva parviflora)

	milkthistles (Silybum spp.)

lettuce, miner's (Claytonia perfoliata) mustards (Brassica spp.) nettle, stinging (Urtica dioica) nutsedge, yellow (Cyperus esculentus) oat, wild (Avena fatua) oxtongue, bristly (Picris echioides) pigweed, redroot (Amaranthus retroflexus) pimpernel, scarlet (Anagallis arvensis) pineapple-weed (Chamomilla suaveolens) polypogon, rabbitfoot (Polypogon monspeliensis) radish, wild (Raphanus raphanistrum) redmaids; desert rockpurslane (Calandrinia ciliata) rocket, London (Sisymbrium irio) ryegrass, Italian (Lolium multiflorum) shepherd's-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) smartweed, swamp (Polygonum coccineum) sowthistle, annual (Sonchus oleraceus) sowthistle, spiny (Sonchus asper) nettle, burning (Urtica urens) spurry, corn (Spergula arvensis) starthistle, yellow (Centaurea solstitialis) stickleafs (Mentzelia sp.) sunflower (Helianthus sp.) tarweeds, coast (Hemizonia corymbosa) tarweeds, hayfield (Hemizonia congesta) thistle, Russian (Salsola tragus)



Vegetative growth

_____ 1- to 3-leaf stage _____ Monitor stand establishment; replant if necessary. _____ Monitor plant nutrient status. _____ Monitor weed species, densities. _____ Apply early season herbicides if necessary. _____ Watch for greenbug and Russian wheat aphid damage. _____ Watch for other insects and mites. _____ Monitor development of natural enemies. _____ Manage small mammals if necessary. _____ Manage birds if necessary.


3-to5-leaf stage

_____ Monitor plant nutrient status. _____ Monitor weed species, densities. _____ Apply selective herbicides if necessary. _____ Watch for greenbug and Russian wheat aphid damage. _____ Watch for other insects and mites. _____ Monitor development of natural enemies. _____ Manage small mammals if necessary.


Mid to late tillering

_____ Monitor plant nutrient status. _____ Monitor water status; irrigate if necessary. _____ Monitor weed species, densities. _____ Apply broadleaf herbicides if necessary. _____ Monitor foliar disease progress. _____ Watch for Russian wheat aphid, other insects. _____ Monitor development of natural enemies. _____ Manage small mammals if necessary.


Late tillering to early jointing

_____ Monitor nitrogen status; apply topdressing. _____ Monitor water status. _____ Monitor late-emerging weeds. _____ Apply broadleaf herbicides if necessary. _____ Monitor foliar disease progress. _____ Watch for Russian wheat aphid, other insects. _____ Monitor development of natural enemies.


Head development and emergence

_____ Jointing to boot _____ Assess lodging potential; consider antilodging agent for barley. _____ Monitor late-emerging weeds. _____ Monitor foliar disease progress, especially Septoria; consider fungicide application. _____ Watch for Russian wheat aphid, other aphids. _____ Monitor development of natural enemies.


Boot to heading

_____ Harvest awned wheat or barley grown for hay if awns objectionable in hay. _____ Monitor water status; irrigate if necessary. Schedule final irrigation of forage crops before heading. _____ Monitor foliar disease progress. _____ Watch for Russian wheat aphid, other aphids. _____ Monitor development of natural enemies.


Heading to anthesis

_____ Harvest forage crops at flowering for maximum quantity of total digestible nutrients. _____ Consider nitrogen topdressing to increase grain protein (some wheat cultivars). _____ Monitor water status; irrigate if necessary. _____ Plan final irrigation of grain crops to carry crop through soft dough stage. _____ Monitor foliar disease progress, especially rusts.


Grain maturation

Grain filling _____ Assess lodging. _____ Monitor grain maturation. _____ Harvest forage crops at milk stage for best balance of feed quality and dry matter yield, at soft dough for maximum dry matter yield. _____ Assess diseases: disease levels help determine need for rotation. _____ Manage small mammals if necessary. _____ Manage birds if necessary.


Harvest

_____ Monitor grain moisture content. _____ Harvest speed and direction determined by lodging. _____ Monitor late season weed growth. _____ Plan residue management based on disease and weed levels, future cropping, and erosion considerations.


Postharvest

_____ Yield levels determine nutrient depletion and program for subsequent crop. _____ Plan crop rotation or fallow. _____ Sample soil for nematodes if rotating to susceptible crop. _____ Apply controls for perennial weeds. _____ Control summer and winter annual weeds during fallow.



CROP DEVELOPMENT

The grain kernel contains those parts necessary for the entire development of the grain plant. The embryo contains the seedling root, stem, and growing points of the new grain plant and the endosperm provides nutrients for growth until the first leaf emerges and the root system is established.


Growth Stages

Development of the grain plant is divided into several stages including; germination and early seedling growth, tillering and vegetative growth, elongation and heading, and flowering and kernel development.

Wheat growth stages (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242006.jpg

Wheat growth stages (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242014.jpg

Wheat growth stages (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242015.jpg

Wheat growth stages (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242019.jpg

Wheat growth stages (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242020.jpg

Wheat growth stages (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242059.jpg

Mature winter wheat heads, Burlington (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\0901085.jpg



Germination and Early Seedling Growth

When the seed begins to germinate, the first thing to emerge is the seedling root, which will penetrate 8-12 inches to provide moisture and nutrients for the seed as well as establish support for the plant. The root system continues to grow and expand as the coleoptile, or part which contains the top growth, emerges and grows. Depending on soil conditions and temperature emergence of the seedling usually takes 6-30 days, but typically 6-20 days.

Wheat germination (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242007.jpg



Tillering and Vegetative Growth

When the plant begins to grow, it forms branches, which are referred to as tillers. These tillers form leaves and a flower head, or inflorescence. The environmental conditions, such as temperature, seeding date, moisture, nutrient availability, and weed competition, will greatly influence how many tillers will form. When the fourth leaf of the coleoptile emerges, the first tiller begins to form and develop. The terminal spikelets usually begin forming when the sixth leaf appears and then the flower heads form. Terminal spikelets do not form in barley and in wheat and oats the spikelets end when the terminal spikelet is formed.

No-till wheat (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242043.jpg

Tilled vs. No-tilled (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242010.jpg

V-blade tillage in wheat (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242044.jpg



Stem Elongation and Heading

Stem elongation occurs when stem internodes increase in length and the nodes become visible above the ground. The nodes are the swollen areas on the stems and are often referred to as joints. The flowering structure of wheat and barley is called a spike, but in oats is called a panicle. The flowering structures are composed of spikelets, each consisting of one or more flowers called florets, at nodes along the young spike or panicle. During stem elongation, the spike or panicle increases in length to its final size, and the individual florets mature. The last leaf of the grain plant to emerge is called the flag leaf.


Flowering and Grain Filling

Wheat, barley and oats are self-pollinated which prevents the chance of them being exposed to ergot, a flower infecting disease. Flowering occurs only 2-4 days after the heads have completely emerged and the nitrogen levels should be closely monitored depending on how the wheat will be used. Shortly after pollination, the endosperm rapidly develops to accumulate carbohydrates for grain filling.


Growth Habit

Wheat is classified as being either spring or winter wheat according to their individual chilling requirements. Winter wheat requires chilling for the reproductive parts to develop and is planted in the fall. Spring wheat does not need this chilling and can be planted after the ground thaws in the spring.


GROWTH REQUIREMENTS

Water

Water that is added to the soil and carbon dioxide the plant takes in from the air combine to supply the plant with the necessary carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which make up 90-95% of the plant and grain dry weight. All other nutrients that need to be added should be applied according to a soil test from the field.


Nutrients

The plant relies upon the root system to supply it with the necessary water and nutrients, which are taken up through the plant's vascular system. Most of the water taken up is evaporated out of the plant through pores in the surface of the leaves and stems called stomata.


Light

Sunlight is extremely important in the development of grain because it is the key component in the process of photosynthesis when the plant produces the energy needed for growth and grain development. Healthy plants are able to utilize the energy from photosynthesis more effectively than those plants that may be damaged from pests or diseases.


Wheat Requirements

Winter wheat is usually planted in the fall because it requires the vernalization period to develop. It develops its culm and tillers in the spring after the winter chill and develops like spring wheat from thereafter. Spring wheat is planted in the spring and the culms and tillers then develop in a short amount of time.


Nutrient Uptake

Wheat takes up most of its nitrogen in the late tillering stage when it has only reached about 25% of its growth. All of the phosphorus is accumulated in the plant by the heading stage.


Nutrient Requirements

The key elements necessary for wheat production are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, but some areas also need substantial amounts of sulfur added.


Nutrient Timing

Wheat is fertilized when planted and in the case of winter wheat, it will receive an additional application in the spring as it begins to emerge and grow. Winter wheat usually receives applications of phosphorus and potassium in the fall as it is being planted and nitrogen in the spring. It is important to have proper nutrients available to the plant at tillering time to prevent lodging problems.


Barley Requirements

Barley is an important cereal that is recognized along with corn, wheat, and oats. It is produced for several uses, which include seed, human food products, malt, and animal feed.



Adaptation

Barley performs best in well-drained loamy soils and in relatively cool climates. It will respond better to heat in semiarid conditions rather than humid areas and is usually more dependable than oats or wheat when less than optimal growing conditions are present.


Types of Barley

Most barley that is grown is either six-rowed or two-rowed varieties, although others are available. Humid spring regions produce primarily six-rowed varieties and semiarid regions produce both six-rowed and two-rowed varieties. Some varieties of both six and two-rowed varieties can produce malt. Malted barley requires well-developed cultural practices producing barley that is starchy, free of disease, and a protein content less than 13.5%.

Barley - Russian Wheat Aphid resistant (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\0045069.jpg

Barley heads (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\0045068.jpg



Seeding Rates and Cultural Practices

Seeding rates vary depending on the growing area, but can range from 50-60 pounds in drier, semiarid locations to 90-100 pounds in irrigated soils. The seeds should be planted 1/2 to 2 inches deep and using a grain drill is the preferred way of planting. If the seeding date is delayed, it is beneficial to increase the seeding rate to ensure a good stand of grain.


Nutrient Removal by Barley

Barley uses large amounts of nitrogen and potassium and so it is essential that the plants do not suffer deficiencies, especially for malted barley.


Three Yield Levels of Barley

Fertilizer should always be available to the plant when it is seeded, whether the nutrients are broadcast and incorporated into the soil or drilled to the side and below the seed. It is usually beneficial to fertilize with phosphorus at planting since cool soils help initiate phosphorus responses.


Dry Matter

There is minimal research on dry matter, but studies show that dry matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus all accumulate at different phases of development.


OATS

Oats are a cool weather crop and should be planted in early spring to allow flowers to pollinate and kernels to develop before the summer heat.

Oat pannicles (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\0901086.jpg



Planting Date Effect on Yield

The selection of oat seed is very critical to how productive the crop will be because oats are very sensitive to temperature, moisture, and soil type. There are many oat varieties available and they should be selected according to the local conditions. Economically it is important to use high quality seed, even though it will slightly increase production costs, the overall yield may be as high as 30-40 bushels/acre more than if lower quality seed had been used.


Seeding

The ground should be properly prepared before planting oats to avoid soils that are too wet and easily become compacted. Oats should be planted 1-2 inches deep and at a rate of 2-3 bushels per acre in order to have a well established, productive crop. When oats are planted along with forage crops, it may be necessary to harvest them in the soft dough stage so that they don't compete for water and nutrients as the legumes are maturing.


Fertilizer Requirements

Oats, like most other crops, require adequate early fertilization so that the plant gets the nutrients that it needs right from the beginning and since oats are a short-season crop, they may not recover from periods of deficiencies. The most critical nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium and are most utilized when drilled with the seeds. Environmental conditions such as soil type, temperature, and moisture can determine how effectively the fertilizer will be released to the plant.


CULTURAL PRACTICES

It is essential to understand management practices that will help control pest populations. In many cases, several different management programs may have to be implemented during the season. Many cultural practices have a significant impact on pest management. Understanding how management practices affect both the grain crop and the development of pest problems will help you schedule a program that will benefit the crop and minimize pest damage.


SANITATION

Perhaps one of the most secure ways to avoid unnecessary introduction of pests and diseases is to maintain good sanitation practices. The following is a list of precautions that may help to avoid infestations. Use high quality seed that does not contain problem weed seed or diseases, do not irrigate with tailwater(wastewater) as it may contain harmful herbicides or nematodes, clean equipment between fields, especially if it has been in a field with bad weed problems, destroy weeds along the side of the field, and spot treat problem areas.


FERTILIZATION

A soil test should always be taken before adding any nutrient to the soil. In many cases, there is enough of particular nutrients remaining in the soil that low levels or no applications may need to be added. Soil test will help determine the proper amount of all nutrients that need to be added. Nitrogen usually needs to be added, but the soil type, previous crop, rainfall, irrigation, yield and quality goals will all help determine just how much should be applied.

Graphic - wheat fertilization (M. S. McMillan; Colorado State University)

graphics\0069054.jpg



Soil Tests

Having a soil test taken will help determine if there are problem areas in the field, such as drainage, and will determine at what rate fertilizers need to be applied. A representative sample needs to be taken. Take 10-20 subsamples at 6-8 inches deep from the field and mix samples in a clean container. After they are well mixed, only about one pint is necessary to take to the laboratory for analysis. It is helpful to know the history of the field for accurate testing. The tissue of the plant can also be tested to help determine the nitrogen status of the crop. Again, take 40-50 stems from several random areas in the field and immediately take them to the laboratory for prompt analysis. Quick tests using nitrate test strips are also available for farmers to run their own tests. Although they may not be as precise, they will still be able to indicate if nitrogen levels are high or low.


Nitrogen

Nitrogen is an important fertilizer because a large percentage of it is used to produce storage protein during grain filling. Nitrogen should be applied in phases rather that all at once because it may be lost to leaching, denitrification or volatilization. Periodic soil tests are recommended in areas where the history of the field is not known to avoid excessive nitrogen which increases lodging and deficient nitrogen which produces small yields and protein levels. Nitrogen should be applied and then followed by irrigation within 1-2 days to ensure that the plant uses the greatest amount of fertilizer applied.


Phosphorus

Phosphorus is essential for good root development so it is necessary that it be available as the seeds are planted. Cold soil conditions may inhibit phosphorus accessibility to the plant, in which case, higher rates may be necessary. When plants are deficient in phosphorus, they have small growth habits, do not tiller, and may be slightly purple. Deficient plants will mature later so it is advised to remedy the problem as soon as it is spotted.


Sulfur

Plants that are suffering from sulfur deficiencies will become pale green or yellow. Sulfur is applied as a top dressing rather than being incorporated into the soil.


Zinc

Zinc should be applied as a trace element in a fertilizer because only small amounts are necessary. Plants that do not have enough zinc may be smaller and experience slow growth habits.


Potassium

Potassium should be applied at planting as needed.


FERTILIZER ECONOMICS-WHEAT

Because wheat can be grown under a variety of conditions, many decisions need to be made so that the highest profits can be obtained. Decisions need to be made about expected yields at various fertilizer rates and combinations, costs for fertilizer applications, production costs, and the expected price for the crop produced.

ADDED COST/ADDED RETURN PRINCIPLE IN WHEAT FERTILIZATION

For wheat topdressing, the added cost/added return principle states that it is profitable to apply N fertilizer to the wheat crop as long as the added value is greater than the added cost.

NITROGEN-PHOSPHORUS COMBINATIONS

Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer applications usually provide a larger yield increase together than yield increases from either nutrient applied seperately. When applied together, they can add as much as 20 bushels per acre to grain yields.

POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION

When nitrogen and phosphorus requirements are met, wheat is more likely to positively respond to potassium fertilizer applications.

SUMMARY

It is necessary to understand the fertilizer requirements in the area in which the grain is planted and know what the expected production levels should be with proper fertilization. In most cases, when fields are fertilized at near maximum yields, near maximum profits are also obtained.


HARVEST

The best time to harvest grain is when the moisture content is between 8-12%. If it is harvested any earlier, when the grain is moist, storage is difficult and expensive. Grain can be harvested earlier and artificially dried, but the added expense is not usually economically advantageous. Oats need to be harvested as soon as possible after they have reached desired maturity because the grain will quickly shatter and cause a great percentage of loss of crop. Forage mixtures are harvested at different stages of growth depending on how the grain will be used. Using the combine settings and attachments properly will greatly reduce loss of product during harvest.


RESIDUE MANAGEMENT

After harvest consider how to deal with the remaining crop residue in the field. Some things to consider are 1) is there a need for baled straw in the area, 2) is biomass powder an option for spreading on the field, 3) what crops are going to be planted in the field the following growing season, and 4) will plowing the remaining residue interfere with future nitrogen fertilizer? There are several ways of getting rid of the residue which include baling the straw, grazing, plowing, or burning. It will be necessary to obtain a permit if burning is allowed in the area. In many areas, the fields are not tilled under to avoid soil erosion problems. Also, uniform distribution of crop residue is critical to allow good planting conditions for the next crop.

Wheat residue (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242045.jpg

Wheat stubble (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242005.jpg



PLANTING

The most recommended planting method is drilling because it is uniform and fertilizer can be applied simultaneously. Grain seeds should not be planted in wet soils and should not exceed a depth of 2 inches. In no-till operations, seeds are drilled directly through the residue of the previous crop. In order for drilling to be successful the seeds and fertilizer must be placed accurately and uniformly in the soil, there must be a power source available to work through the previous crop residue, and a powerful tractor is necessary to pull the drill evenly through the field.


Seeding Rate

Seeding dates are determined by the planting method and growing conditions. If the seed is broadcast, the seeding rate needs to be higher than normal to account for seeds that do not germinate or grow successfully. In addition, if the seeds get planted late or in narrow rows, a higher seeding rate should be applied because fewer tillers form on later plantings and high plant densities shorten the time to flowering. If the field has had problems with weeds in the past, it may be beneficial to use a higher seeding rate to compete with a growing weed population. However, high seeding rates increase the problems associated with lodging and should not be used if optimum growing conditions are present.


Planting Date

Planting dates should correspond with the area. Plant to avoid damage by frost or diseases. Planting too early in the fall increases the risk of being exposed to diseases and may cause the plants to flower prematurely in the spring when there is still the chance of frost. Planting too late is a problem because the fields become too wet and the soil is easily compacted. The optimal time to plant is after a light fall rain, because the soil is moist and the weeds can be destroyed during the planting process.


IRRIGATION=

Having water available to the plant is critical in its overall development. Adequate water is important during tillering and from boot to soft dough stages of development. Fields can be irrigated in a variety of ways but the three most common methods are border check, furrow and sprinkler irrigation. Depending on the soil conditions, 2-5 inches of water should be applied at each irrigation to bring the soil to field capacity. By checking the evapotranspiration rate, it is possible to determine how much water the plants use and when they will need more moisture added. Moisture stress can be identified by bluish green foliage, wrinkled leaf margins, curled leaves and slowed growth or a limp feel in the afternoons.


BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS=

One option of handling unwanted pests is to use natural enemies. However, it must be considered how effectively they will work against the pest and how long they will be needed. In many situations, it is not economically feasible to use biological controls.


HARVESTING: Yield Components

The major factors affecting the amount of grain harvested are the number of plants per acre, the number of tillers per plant, the number of spikelets per tiller, the number of kernels per spikelet, and the kernel weight. The seeding rate and germination rate determines the plant density and the number of tillers that are formed. The number of spikelets per spike is determined by the time stem elongation begins which is about the 4-5 leaf stage. The number of kernels per spikelet develop during the stem elongation stage and must effectively utilize all the photosynthate produced. The kernel weight is a combination of starch and protein that is produced after flowering.


MAXIMIZING WHEAT YIELDS

The most reliable production programs include proper variety selection, good weed, insect, and disease control, and high levels of soil fertility.

YIELD POTENTIAL

As technology becomes more advanced, the average wheat yields will continue to rise. Soft white wheat has the highest yield potential followed by hard red wheat, soft red wheat, and Durum wheat. The key to high yields is high yield management.

HIGH YIELD MANAGEMENT

In order to assure high yields, a variety that is compatible with the growing area must be selected and the crop should have minimal competition with weeds, insects, and disease. Most high yielding varieties grown today are short and have stiff straw to avoid lodging. In many cases, higher application rates of fertilizers must be used to provide more nutrients to obtain greater yields.

FERTILIZING FOR HIGH YIELDS

The main reason for low wheat yields is the failure to meet fertilizer requirements. Wheat has a high fertilizer requirement, especially of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Soil tests will determine the rate at which each of these nutrients should be applied and when the applications are necessary.

FERTILIZER PLACEMENT

Higher yields will be obtained if the wheat is fertilized with a starter fertilizer as the seeds are being placed in the soil. This makes the nutrients readily available to the seed so they may begin their growth properly. However, the placement of the fertilizer is critical so not to get too close and burn the seed. In addition, the fertilizer must be uniformly distributed in the proper amounts.


MAXIMIZING BARLEY YIELDS

As with wheat, barley yields continue to increase as technology and new varieties become available.

BARLEY GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS

The growth of barley is linked with good environmental conditions at important developmental stages of the plant, such as emergence, tillering, jointing, elongation, heading, flowering, and grain filling. The critical management practices include sufficient sunlight, moisture, and nutrients available to the plant. Stresses of any kind will decrease the potential number of kernels that develop in the head.

FERTILIZATION

Proper fertilization is extremely important in the success of barley crops. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the most important nutrients and should be available to the seed as it is planted. When the plants have reached about 25% of their growth, they will have used about 90% of the nutrient requirements. Nitrogen will probably need to be applied as a preplant fertilizer as well as right before jointing because of the high nitrogen needs of the plant. However, in malted barley the nitrogen requirements are about 10% less because the grain protein levels are lower.

MALTING BARLEY

Nitrogen fertilizers must be well managed in malted barley to produce grain with low protein levels. Usually phosphorus and potassium will need to be applied at higher rates to increase kernel plumpness. As with all grains, weeds, insects, and diseases must be controlled to eliminate stress of competition.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

Barley is extremely sensitive to root diseases and should be planted in well-drained soils. Generally if the field is planted at a rate of 1 1/2-2 bushels per acre, a good stand will development and produce a high yield.

SUMMARY

Good management practices such as adequate plant nutrients and moisture during the early growing stages can produce high barley yields. Early management will create strong root systems and later produce large numbers and sizes of grain kernels.


CROP ROTATION

Crop rotation can help improve soil structure and fertility if practiced properly. Usually broadleaf crops are those that are used in rotation because they are not hosts of the same pests and diseases and do not have the same nutrition requirements as grain. This prevents a buildup of nutrients and unwanted infestations. Crop rotation should be well planned to avoid applying herbicides that may leave harmful residues in the soil for grain products. In addition, important considerations of field preparation include soil type, crop residue, cropping pattern, leveling irrigated fields for uniform water distribution, type of irrigation used, and planting date.


SEED VARIETIES

Planting disease free seed will prevent yield problems because of low germination and production of grains. Seeds should be inspected for cultivar and genetic purity and should always be planted in well-drained soils that are properly prepared to avoid introduction of weeds, insects, or pests. Seeds are divided into three different classes: foundation seed, registered seed, and certified seed. Certified seed is the highest quality and should always be used if possible.

Common barley seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224031.jpg

Hulless barley seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224032.jpg

Moravian barley seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224030.jpg

Naked barley seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224033.jpg

Pearled barley seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224034.jpg

Pearled barley seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224035.jpg

Durum wheat seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224039.jpg

Hard red winter wheat seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224040.jpg

Hard white spring wheat seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224042.jpg

Hard white winter wheat seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224041.jpg

Soft white spring wheat seeds (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\1224043.jpg



Resistant Cultivars

Planting resistant cultivars is economical because they are engineered to protect the seed from a range of diseases to prevent substantial losses.



Misc. Photos

Field preparation equipment, disk, ammonia for wheat (H. F. Schwartz; Colorado State University)

graphics\0901076.jpg

Graphic - winter wheat planting (M. S. McMillan; Colorado State University)

graphics\0069048.jpg

Grain pile beside elevator (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0730089.jpg

Gulf grain loading facility (; Colorado State University)

graphics\0242098.jpg